USA > Connecticut > Connecticut as a colony and as a state; or, One of the original thirteen, Volume III > Part 18
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The patents worthy of mention obtained by Connecticut citizens in 1856 were those to Horace Smith and Daniel P. Wesson of New Haven, for improved primers for cartridges; John J. Howe and Inman Piper of Derby, for improvement in japanning pins; James S. Taylor of Danbury, for an improvement in machinery for forming hat bodies; and Blakesley, Platt & Jordan of Waterbury, for machinery to make brass kettles.
Among the thirty important patents granted in 1857 were, to George and David Cook of New Haven, for improved adjustable seats for carriages; and Charles Hicks, assignor to
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American Flask and Cap Company of Waterbury, for an improvement in machine for varnishing percussion caps.
The notable ones granted to Connecticut citizens in 1859 were to Samuel Colt, Hartford, for a gunstock that was also a canteen, and coupling gun stocks with pistols; L. S. White of Waterbury, for a burnishing machine; Milo Peck & Co. of New Haven, for an improved tool holder ; John A. Evarts, West Meriden, for an improvement in the mode of manufac- turing pulleys; Wallace & Sons of Ansonia, for improved clasps for skirt-hoops; and Thaddeus Selleck of Winchester, for coating the surfaces of iron with Franklinite metal.
Thus briefly have been sketched a few of the most valuable patents that have tended to make Connecticut one of the foremost manufacturing States of the Union. From this time, the multiplicity of patents granted her citizens renders it impossible, in a work of this character, to make specific mention of them. So ingenious were her citizens in the last four decades of the nineteenth century, that to give an item- ized account of even the important inventions patented, which have advanced her progress, is a subject to be dealt with by itself. To show the increase made, we state the number of patents issued in the first year of each decade, beginning with 1840, when Connecticut had 24 in a total of 449 : in 1850, 57 out of 973; 1860, 237 out of 4,510; 1870, 739 in 12,- 677; 1880, 610 in 12,655 ; 1890, 937 out of 24, 103; 1900, 755 out of 22,935.
According to the ratio of population, Connecticut in 1900 was second of the fifty-two States and Territories of the United States; two years later she was first, there having been issued to her citizens one patent for every 1, 198 of her popu- lation. By comparative tables it is shown, that the United States issues one-third of the patents of the world. She had
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a grand total to Dec. 31, 1901, of 579,768 ; the next country was France with 330,977; Great Britain third, with 2.94,- 758; and Germany fourth, with 144,239.
The first industrial exhibition that could rightly be called a "World's Fair" was held at London in 1851, at the "Crystal Palace"; it attracted exhibitors from all over the world. The manufacturers who represented Connecticut were J. A. Fay & Co., of Norwich, planing and molding machinery; Samuel Colt of Hartford, repeating firearms; Whiting Hayden, of Willimantic, drawing frame for cotton; Ashmead & Hurl- burt, of Hartford, machine-made gold foil; and Julius Pratt & Co., of Meriden, ivory veneer cut by machinery. A much more important exhibition was held in 1862 in the same city. Owing to the Civil War, there were only seventy exhibiters from the United States, three of whom were from Connect- icut : viz., Blake Brothers, New Haven, stone-breaking ma- chine; W. H. Green, Meriden, revolving caster; and Colt's Patent Firearms Company, Hartford, guns and pistols.
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CHAPTER XXII PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
C ONNECTICUT has always been among the first States in the Union to secure to her citizens the advantages of a public education; the founda- tions of the schools, as well as of the churches, were laid by the early colonists. The old meth- ods, which have previously been stated, were perpetuated, and there were no radical changes made in school government be- fore the latter part of the eighteenth century.
One can form some idea of the primitiveness of the facili- ties for obtaining an early education, by what the lexicogra- pher, Noah Webster, wrote in 1840. He states that when he was young, the books used were Dilworth's Spelling Book, the Psalter, and the Bible. A small book on geography was first published in 1789 by Jedidiah Morse; the study of his- tory was unknown at this period. Until 1785 the books men- tioned were the only ones used for reading ; at that time Web- ster published the Third Part of his "Institute," which con- tained short notices of the geography and history of the United States. Three years later he wrote about twenty pages in reference to the transactions of the country after the Revolution; this appeared in the first edition of Morse's American Geography. Slates were not used until some years after the Revolution; the teachers wrote copies and sums in arithmetic, which were copied on paper by the scholars with- out the use of text-books. The introduction of Webster's Spelling Book in 1783 laid the foundation of more care and accuracy in that study; English grammar was not generally taught.
That the adoption of these needed reforms must have caused a revolution in the acquiring of knowledge, is evi- denced by the fact that in 1793 the selectmen of the town of Franklin certified as to the ability of Eliphalet Nott (who
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was afterwards for sixty-two years president of Union Col- lege), that "he had taught reading, writing, English gram- mar, geography, arithmetic, and several branches of mathe- matics, with uncommon success."
While the code of 1750 provided that every town or par- ish should maintain one school, there had been as early as 1724 towns which were divided into two school districts. In 1766 these districts were recognized as merely subdivisions of towns and parishes; but in 1794 they became by law quasi bodies corporate, having the power to vote the repairs for their own building, to elect their officials, and to levy and collect taxes. It was not until 1839 that they were empow- ered to choose their own committees, to purchase and con- vey school properties, to make arrangements and regulations for the management of schools, employ teachers, arrange school terms, and be parties to actions in legal proceedings. There has been no practical change made in the powers thus granted to school districts and their officers; in 1866, how- ever, it was enacted that towns could abolish their districts, and constitute a union district. This privilege has been exer- cised by many towns, and there is a growing tendency to return to the town system of school government.
The school societies, which were the offsprings of the par- ishes, were not recognized by law until 1798, when the care of the schools was entirely transferred from the towns to these societies; this remained the usage until 1856. Since this date the care of funds, the formation and arrangements of school districts, the appointment of committees, and what- ever was formerly done by these societies, is transacted by the towns. The schools previous to 1714 were independent cor- porate bodies; but in that year a law was passed giving the towns and societies supervision of them; this was the begin-
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ning of the official visiting of schools, and in 1798 the office of School Visitor was created.
While the question of State supervision was agitated in 1826, it was not until 1837 that a law was enacted estab- lishing a "Board of Commissioners of Common Schools." This consisted of the Governor and School Fund Commis- sioner, ex-officio, and one person from each county; the board had the power of choosing their own Secretary, who became in fact, if not in name, State Superintendent of Pub- lic Schools. The first to fill this position was Henry Barnard, whose devotion to the interests of the public schools of his native State will always cause his name to be associated with educational matters.
The Board of Commissioners was abolished in 1842; three years later the "Commissioner of the School Fund" was appointed "Superintendent of Common Schools," which posi- tion he held until 1849, when with the establishment of the State Normal School at New Britain, the principal of that institution performed the duties of both offices. The present State Board of Education, consisting of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor as ex officio members, and one from each congressional district was established in 1865, with authority to select their own secretary, who was to devote his time to the duties appropriate for a State Superintendent of Schools. Since 1895 the latter official has been an ex officio member of the board.
In the maintenance of her schools, Connecticut can point with pride to that stable monument which was created in 1795 by an act of her Legislature. The Connecticut School Fund owes its foundation to the sale of the lands on the "Western reserve"; its first dividend was made in March 1799, and for thirteen succeeding years an average annual
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dividend of $35, 135.19 was paid to the school societies. The board of managers up to this time had consisted of four indi- viduals; owing to the facts that a large amount of interest was unpaid, and many of the securities of uncertain value, the Legislature decided to change the system, and intrust the funds to one man, with the title of the "Commissioner of the School Fund."
James Hillhouse, who for sixteen years had represented the State in the upper house of Congress, was selected for the position. He resigned his Senatorship, and served fifteen years in his new office. He so disentangled embarrassing affairs, that during his charge of the funds not only was the capital increased, but the annual dividend was some $17,000 larger. Mr. Hillhouse was succeeded by Seth P. Beers, who had been his assistant for two years previous to his retirement. Mr. Beers' administration continued until 1849, and by his wise and judicious management the original capital was nearly doubled.
The dividends to the school societies, until 1820, were determined by the amount of their grand list, therefore the wealthier ones received the greater proportion. This was changed in that year, when the number of children between four and sixteen years of age in each society was made the basis of distribution. The rate for each child varied from eighty-five cents in 1826 to one dollar and a half in 1849-50; but since that time, owing to increasing population, it has gradually diminished, until it was enacted by the Legislature that interest on the fund should be transferred to the State Treasurer. This has been done since 1897.
In 1760 the school tax was fixed at forty shillings on each £1,000 assessment; this was continued until it was abolished in 1820. From that time to 1854, town or society school tax
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was unknown in Connecticut; the tuition or rate bills, and interest in funds and dividends from the School Fund, being the only source of income. The State tax was restored in 1854, but was again abolished, the last payment being made in 1890. By an act of the Legislature, the State in 1871 agreed to make an annual appropriation of fifty cents for each child between four and sixteen years of age resident of the towns; this the following year was increased to one dollar and a half. Upon receiving the interest of the School Fund, the rate was made two dollars and a half, which is the pay- ment now made by the State for the support of public education.
In the winter of 1836, the Legislature created what was known as the "Town Deposit Fund." This was occasioned by the division of the surplus revenue accumulated in the United States Treasury, which was to be distributed pro rata among the States. Connecticut's apportionment was a little over $1,000,000, which was to be paid during 1837 in four equal payments. Three of these were received, but owing to the financial panic of 1837 the other was postponed, and has never been liquidated.
The actual amount received was $764,670.60; and while this was nominally a deposit made by the general govern- ment, with the privilege of its recall to the national treasury, this right has never been exercised, and probably never will be; therefore it was really a gift to the State. The General Assembly, on receiving the deposit, apportioned it among the towns according to their population in 1830; though towns formed since that date received their share from what was originally apportioned to those from which they were taken.
At first, only one-half of the income derived from the
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deposit was devoted to school purposes; but in 1855 this was modified so that the entire income was to be expended for the maintenance of public schools.
The pioneer town in the introduction of free text-books was Killingworth; the example thus inaugurated was fol- lowed previous to 1903 by thirty-nine towns. That Connec- ticut should (as many of her sister States have done) intro- duce this system, is a wide-spread opinion in the State; but the contrary idea is by no means lacking supporters.
The early colonists evinced a desire for the establishment of schools of a higher grade than the ordinary common school. According to the code of 1650, towns containing one hundred families were required to maintain a grammar school; in 1672 this was amended, to the effect that one should be established in each of the four country towns. Hartford and New Haven already had such schools, but Fairfield and New London did not comply with the law for many years. The school law of 1700 made a permanent income for the grammar schools, and the system thus adopted continued unchanged until 1798.
When school societies had charge of school affairs, they were empowered by a two-thirds vote "to institute a school of higher order." It was under this law that the High School in Hartford was established in 1847. The school dis- tricts in 1839 were authorized to establish schools of dif- ferent grades; this power was taken from them a few years later, but was restored in 1856, and at the same time towns were given the right to maintain high schools. For the advancement of education, and as a preparatory school for a college course of study, academies were instituted. The first one appeared in 1781, and was known as the Staples Free
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School; it was located in what is now the town of Easton. Two years later the Plainfield Academy was founded.
The famous law school of Judge Reeves, a brother-in-law of Aaron Burr, was established in 1784 at Litchfield, where it was continued until 1833. A female seminary was also started in that county seat in 1792, and was in existence nearly forty years.
The Episcopal Academy at Cheshire was established in 1796, and from this time the Legislature was frequently petitioned to incorporate academies; in 1838 a general law was passed, authorizing citizens under certain conditions to form a corporation for the maintenance of these schools.
Mention has already been made of the act authorizing the institution of a normal school for teachers. The State Nor- mal School was opened at New Britain in 1850, and with the exception of two years has continued in active operation to the present time. Since 1865 it has been under the charge of the Board of Education. A similar school was started at Willimantic in 1889, and one at New Haven in 1893.
Trinity College, like many similar educational institutions in the country, owes its existence to the efforts of a particular religious denomination to have a college under its auspices. Soon after the consecration of Bishop Seabury, steps were taken to organize an educational institution under the control of the Episcopal Church. At a convocation held at East Haddam, the initiatory movement was made that resulted in the incorporation in 1801 of the academy at Cheshire; this was sometimes called Seabury College. The Legislature granted but limited privileges to this institution; it was not empowered to confer degrees, thereby it could not become a
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rival of, or even reach the same educational standard as, the college then in existence under the controlling influences of Congregationalism.
Though repeated efforts were made to obtain an enlarge- ment of its charter, and petition after petition was drawn up and presented to the General Assembly, the ascendancy of Congregationalism, and the strong feeling existing against Episcopacy, created a violent opposition. Though in 1810 the House of Representatives favored the memorial, it was not concurred in by the Council (Senate). Another strenu- ous effort was made five years later. The time had not yet arrived, however, for the establishment of a second college : the State was undergoing great political changes, and this, with the establishing of a General Theological Seminary, together with a vacancy in the episcopate, led the Churchmen to defer the project.
The endeavors of those who had so zealously labored for the accomplishment of the undertaking, were however to meet with success; the adoption of a new State constitution in 1818, coupled with the consecration the following year of Rev. Thomas Church Brownell as Bishop of Connecticut, were, after more than a quarter of a century of earnest exer- tions, to accomplish the incorporation of a second college in Connecticut.
A meeting of eighteen clergymen was held in 1822, at the residence of the newly-elected Bishop in New Haven, where. it was decided that a petition should be circulated through- out the State, for the purpose of obtaining signatures of the citizens favoring the organization of the college. This petition was presented to the Legislature on May 30, 1823; three days later, the act incorporating Washington College was passed by the lower house; it received the concurrence of
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the upper house, and was duly signed by the Governor. The citizens of Hartford, to testify their appreciation, celebrated the event by the firing of cannon and the lighting of bon- fires.
The charter provided that before the Trustees could organ- ize, $30,000 should be secured; they had the authority to locate the college in any town in the State which they might deem expedient. The same plan was adopted that was used to secure the permanent establishment of the first college; competition was opened, $50,000 was pledged within a year, and as Hartford had generously subscribed three-fourths of this amount, it was selected for the home of the institution.
As a historical fact, it is worthy to record that the day before the presentation of the memorial for the chartering of Washington College, the corporation repealed the old so- called "test-law" of Yale College.
The Trustees selected a beautiful site, consisting of four- teen acres, half a mile west of the public square at Hartford; it was dignified by the name of College Hill. Thick forests were near neighbors, in which, to the student with hunting proclivities, the click of a gun would often be as music to his ear; while those inclined to aquatic sports could indulge in boating or fishing on the small river that bounded the campus.
Bishop Brownell was elected president of the college on May 16, 1824; the following month the erection of build- ings was begun. These were two: Jarvis Hall, from plans of a noted Boston architect, which was designed for the accom- modation of the students; the other, Seabury Hall, which contained the chapel, library, and other public apartments, was from a drawing by Samuel F. B. Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph.
The Faculty was chosen the following August; among its
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members were Rev. George W. Doane, who became Bishop of New Jersey, and Mr. Hector Humphrey, the first tutor, who was afterwards elected President of St. John's College of Maryland. The Rev. Horatio Potter was chosen pro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in 1828; in 1854 he was elected provisional Bishop, and in 1861 he became Bishop, of the Diocese of New York, which position he held until his death in 1887.
The college was opened on Sept. 23, 1824, with nine under- graduates, which number was increased before the close of the year to twenty-eight. An innovation was inaugurated that was a new feature in American college education : students were taken for a partial course, allowing them to pursue such particular studies as were suited to their circumstances. After a two-years' attendance, an English diploma was received by them.
The attacks against the establishment of a Church college, although its doors had been thrown open to the public, had not yet ended. An anonymous pamphlet war was begun; but in spite of sectarian opposition, and lack of support by the State, Washington College maintained its position, and was encouraged by donations from abroad. The first Com- mencement was held in August 1827, when ten graduates received the degree of Bachelor of Arts.
The cares and labors of the Diocese became so arduous that Bishop Brownell in 1831 was obliged to resign his duties as president, and Rev. Nathaniel S. Wheaton, one of the orig- inators of the plan, was chosen to fill the position. Previous to this he had visited England to solicit contributions, espe- cially for the library, and met with much success. Dr. Wheaton during his occupancy of the office, which he resigned in 1837, was instrumental in laying the foundation for a sys-
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tem of endowments, which with his own benefactions placed the college on a firm financial basis.
The vacancy he left in the presidency was filled by the elec- tion of Rev. Silas Totten, who had been for four years profes- sor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. Under Dr. Totten's administration of eleven years, considerable addi- tions were made to the funds of the college, especially for the establishment of scholarships; a second dormitory building was built in 1845, and named Brownell Hall; the same year the name of the college was changed to Trinity.
A Board of Fellows was organized for the superintendence of the course of study and discipline. The Alumni and other graduates, not members of the corporation, were formed into the House of Convocation, which name was changed in 1883 to the Association of the Alumni. The successor of Dr. Tot- ten was Rev. John Williams, a graduate of the class of 1835; under his administration the funds of the library were considerably increased. A theological department was estab- lished, which was the foundation of the Berkeley Divinity School, incorporated in 1854, and afterwards removed to Middletown, where it has been encouraged by the generous help of the citizens of that city. The charter was amended in 1849, making the Bishop of Connecticut ex officio Chan- cellor of the college, and president of the Board of Trustees. Dr. Williams in 1851 was elected Bishop of Connecticut. Two years later his episcopal duties had so increased that he resigned the presidency of the college.
Bishop Williams was succeeded by Rev. Daniel R. Good- win ,who resigned in 1860; and Dr. Samuel Eliot, his succes- sor, filled the position until 1864. It was during his term of office that the foundation was laid for an addition of $100,-
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000 to the general fund of the college, which project was ulti- mately successful.
The next president was Rev. John B. Kerfoot, whose administration was brief. He resigned in January 1866 to accept the bishopric of Pittsburg. The vacancy was not filled until June, 1867, when Rev. Abner Jackson, a graduate of the class of 1837, was elected to the presidency of his Alma Mater. Under Dr. Jackson's administration, the number of students increased; the colossal bronze statue of the first pres- ident was presented to the college; the largest gift from any individual donor was received; and the city of Hartford, desirous of obtaining a site for a new capital, purchased the college campus for $600,000. A new college site of seventy- eight acres was secured, a mile south of the old campus, and Dr. Jackson visited England twice to perfect plans for the new buildings. But before the work was begun, he died, after a short illness, on April 19, 1874.
On the 7th of November in the same year, the Trustees elected Rev. Thomas R. Pynchon, of the class of 1841, to the presidency. Ground was broken for the new buildings, with appropriate ceremonies, on July 1, 1875, and two large blocks of buildings were ready for occupancy in 1878. The erection of Northam Hall in 1881 completed the western range of the quadrangle. It was named for its munificent donor, Mr. Charles H. Northam, of Hartford, whose total gifts, in connection with a legacy left by his widow, do not fall far short of a quarter of a million of dollars.
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