USA > Connecticut > Tercentenary pamphlet series, v. 3 The Beginnings of Roman Catholicism in Connecticut > Part 10
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The Printing-Office of the Yale University Press
TERCENTENARY COMMISSION OF THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT
COMMITTEE ON HISTORICAL PUBLICATIONS
XLV The First Twenty Years of Railroads in Connecticut
SIDNEY WITHINGTON™
I HE development of Connecticut's railroads has now extended over a period of almost exactly a century. The first railroad charters were granted by the state legislature in 1832, and the first actual operation of a railroad on Connecti- cut soil took place in 1837.
The early railroad routes were largely determined by geographical factors. Parallel ridges, running generally north and south, separate the valleys of rivers which are navigable for some distance inland from Long Island Sound. These rivers, during perhaps two thirds of the year, afforded reasonably convenient transport, espe- cially after the introduction of the steamboat in the early part of the nineteenth century.2 Furthermore, Long
IThe author is indebted to various officers of the New Haven Railroad for items of historical interest from their records, and to Mr. James Hillhouse for making available the valuable material in his library.
2 Fulton's famous trip up the Hudson river in his steamboat, Clermont, took place in 1807. The development of steamboat traffic was very rapid after that date.
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Island Sound, protected as it is by Long Island, along the southern coast of Connecticut, provided favorable water transportation among the various tidewater communi- ties, and between each of them and the metropolis of New York. In addition to its favorable water transportation, Connecticut had early developed, by means of private capital, an elaborate system of turnpikes, or toll roads, and toll bridges, chartered and built during the half- century before the initial appearance of the railroads.
For these reasons (and perhaps to some extent on account of the well-known conservatism of Connecticut's citizens), the introduction of railroads in Connecticut was somewhat later than in certain other parts of the country. When Connecticut's first genuine railroad route was opened for travel, about a decade after the initial rail- road operation in the United States, there were already about two thousand miles of railroad in service along the Atlantic seaboard.
The earliest thoughts among railroad pioneers in Con- necticut were concentrated not only upon opening con- nection into the interior from the Sound, but upon efforts to improve the through service between Boston and New York. A common route between these two cities had been by stagecoach from Boston to Providence, and thence by packet via Narragansett Bay, Point Judith, and Long Island Sound. Although the voyage through the sheltered waters of the Sound was easy and pleasant, the portion of the trip between Narragansett Bay and the Sound, being in open sea, was sometimes made difficult by rough weather, and it was natural to endeavor to eliminate that part of the water route. Massachusetts people were building a railroad between Boston and Providence which suggested an obvious connection for New York travel. The Boston and Worcester Railroad and the Western
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Railroad in Massachusetts (now the Boston and Albany system) constituted an effective route, extending along the entire northerly boundary of Connecticut, available for connections with rail routes running south to Long Island Sound.
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THE early charters granted to railroads in Connecticut were, in general, uniform in their provisions, though neither the officers of the corporations nor the members of the legislature were apparently clear in their minds as to just what the form of operation on the railroads would finally be. The turnpike and canal corporations were well known as transportation agencies, and there was evi- dently a thought that the railroads might be operated on a somewhat similar basis, the railroad company pro- viding the route, and individuals or companies furnishing their own rolling stock and motive power and paying toll for the use of the tracks.
The directors of the early railroads were thus by the terms of their charters usually "authorized to erect toll houses, establish gates, appoint toll gatherers, and de- mand toll upon the road" and "the transportation of persons and property, the construction of wheels, the form of cars and carriages, the weight of load and all other matters" were to be under their jurisdiction. It was stipulated that the railroad might "be used by any person who shall comply with the rules and regulations." It was also provided, in most instances, that the legislature might "authorize any company to enter the railroad" with "another railroad at any point ... paying for the right of using the same, such a rate as the legislature may from time to time prescribe." These provisions all fol- lowed the older turnpike charters.
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The early railroad charters did not limit the railroads as to the form of motive power which might be used, for the companies were permitted "to transport, take and carry property and persons upon said railroad or way by the power and force of steam, of animals or of any mechanical or other power." The New York and New Haven Railroad, in 1844, was authorized to cross the Housatonic river at Stratford by means of a bridge, but was forbidden "to permit the passing of the said crossing or viaduct by carriages ... other than those which are adapted to traveling on the railroad, nor by horses not attached to such railroad carriages." It is probable that horses were at first employed, to some extent at least, in yard switching in Connecticut. The Norwich and Worcester directors, however, proudly reported in 1840 that "The only power used is by locomotive steam engines, the great expense of horse power being entirely avoided."
The right of condemnation of land for railroad pur- poses was granted in the earliest railroad charters, and each railroad was, by the provision of its charter, placed under the jurisdiction of three commissioners appointed by the state (but whose salaries were paid by the rail- road), whose duty it was to fix proper value upon land which might be condemned for right of way in cases where outright purchase prices could not be agreed upon between the railroad and the landowner.
The three commissioners also were charged with the duty of making return, to the secretary of state, of the complete accounting of all expenses of construction, and of the operating costs of the railroad over which they had jurisdiction. This provision undoubtedly prevented much of the serious evil which arose in other parts of the country, where misstatements regarding money received
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from stock subscriptions and expended in construction were not uncommon. The appointment of commissioners followed the old turnpike and canal charters and indi- cates the control which was exercised by Connecticut over its public utilities from the earliest times.
The railroads were placed under the jurisdiction of city governments whenever their route lay within the city limits. No portion of the railroad might be constructed in any city "except with the consent of the Mayor, aldermen, common` council and freemen." The use of "steam power" within city limits was also subject to approval by the city authorities.
Stock subscriptions were, for obvious reasons, arranged to be paid in instalments when the money was needed for construction as it progressed, or for purchase of equip- ment. This procedure, on occasion, involved embarrass- ment because, when the time arrived for collection of instalments, it sometimes happened that the subscriber was unable or unwilling to make payment upon his stock. The railroad directors were authorized, under these cir- cumstances, to sell the stock of the delinquent at public auction, repaying to him his equity pro rata. When the delinquents were many and the demand for stock low, it was sometimes difficult to raise sufficient funds to permit proceeding with the construction. Under these circum- stances the directors were forced to borrow enough money to continue. This was often difficult and interest was relatively high, a rate of seven per cent being not an abnormal figure. Appeals for assistance made to the Connecticut legislature were, during several decades at least, unsuccessful; though neighboring states were gen- erous with their credit for the assistance of their railroads, with the idea that the railroads would benefit the com- munity. Often, a Connecticut city or town, recognizing
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the desirability of rail connection with the outside world, would issue bonds for the benefit of a railroad.
State aid was sometimes granted under charter provi- sions, in the form of abatement of taxes until such time as the dividends should reach six per cent, or in other cases, ten per cent. This was a somewhat academic provi- sion, however, for dividends of any sort were the excep- tion, in those early days. By unfortunate coincidence, many railroad companies in Connecticut were organized and committed to their construction programs at periods which synchronized with serious nationwide financial and industrial depressions. This aggravated the problems of the individual railroad managements, since they required capital in amounts which had been quite unheard of but a few years earlier.
The difficulty of raising money, as well as the amount of money required for launching this new and untried transportation industry, explains in some measure the financial disasters experienced by so large a proportion of Connecticut's early railroads. Bitter competition among themselves and from the water routes and drastic rate- cutting undoubtedly also contributed to the financial difficulties. Engineering data were practically nonexistent; storms, floods, and loss of important bridges frequently caused complete interruption to the service, and thus to the revenue, sometimes for weeks together. The cholera epidemic of the late 'forties in New York was a source of much concern in that it seriously upset traffic conditions for a time.
III
PRACTICALLY all the early railroads were built at first as single-track roads, partly because there was not sufficient traffic to justify two tracks, and partly because there was
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need for extreme economy owing to the scarcity of capital. In many instances grading was provided initially for the second track which in some cases soon became necessary. The track rails of the earliest roads consisted of flat wrought-iron bars or straps spiked along the top of wooden stringers. These were replaced in the later 'forties by heavier rails of the now familiar T-section, with cross- tie construction-service sometimes being discontinued while the change was made.
The earliest bridges were usually wooden trestles, though masonry arches were used when money was available. Wooden trusses of the so-called patent Howe type, then recently developed, were common, and were successful and economical provided they were properly maintained, were not destroyed by fire, and were not overloaded. They often were of relatively long spans: the bridge across the Connecticut river at Windsor Locks, installed in 1844, had, besides the drawspan over the river and the spans over an adjacent canal and towpath, seven spans of one hundred and seventy-seven feet each, the total length being fifteen hundred feet. That bridge, incidentally, was destroyed in a gale on October 13, 1846, by being blown bodily off its piers into the river, and was replaced by a new bridge in forty-five days.
The operation of railroads without communication by means of telegraph or telephone presented a number of problems which the modern railroad operator does not meet. Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, sent his famous first message by wire in 1844. After that, the development of telegraphic communication was slow though continuous, and in 1851 the first application to railroad operation was made. General adoption of the telegraph in the railroad field, however, did not arrive until the late 'fifties. Thus for about twenty years after
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the railroads were introduced, they were without means of transmitting intelligence more quickly than by the trains themselves, and the problems thus imposed were not inconsiderable, especially on single-track routes.3
A distinctive type of locomotive was quickly standard- ized in this country, known as the "American" type, with a four-wheel guiding truck forward and two pairs of driving wheels, coupled by means of side rods and con- nected at first inside, and later outside, the driving wheels, to cylinders placed under the forward end of the horizontal boiler. The early locomotives had no cabs or other shelter for the engine crew, who were obliged to stand on an open platform, protected by only a very slight railing. It was argued that the stagecoach drivers were accustomed to withstand the rigors of the weather and that there was no reason why engine drivers should not do so. Eventually, however, cabs were found to be necessary and were first used on the railroads of New England in the later 'forties, and subsequently adopted throughout the country.
Wood was at first used exclusively as fuel in Connecti- cut, partly on account of the high cost of transporting coal from the coal fields and the plentiful wood supply available; and partly on account of the technical difficul- ties in burning coal. The burning of wood necessitated the use of elaborate screens or "spark catchers" in the smoke- stacks, which in turn resulted in the large balloon-like stacks characteristic of the early locomotives and immor- talized in many old railroad prints. Even with the use of screens, blazing sparks "vomited from the stacks" often set fire to grass, forests, railroad bridges, and neighbor-
3 The first train from New Haven for New York, December 25, 1848, was 1 obliged to return from Williams' Bridge to New Haven, the Harlem con- nection not being completed, as had been supposed.
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ing buildings, to say nothing of the trains themselves.
The growing scarcity of wood, the falling costs of coal, and the development of the technique of coal burning, resulted in the adoption of coal as fuel in Connecticut, experimentally in 1857 and practically universally in the late 'sixties. With the adoption of coal, the very large "wood houses," which were characteristic of the early engine terminal, disappeared, as did the class of labor, often known as "sawers," employed at engine terminals.
The "American" type of locomotive, as standardized in the late 'forties, was equipped with a bell and a "cow catcher," and in the middle 'fifties with a headlight. All these accessories were made necessary by the frequency of highway crossings at grade, the inadequacy of fences along the right of way, and the habit which cattle, horses, and people promptly formed of wandering along the right of way and even of sleeping on the tracks.
One of the pleasant characteristics of the early loco- motive was the habit, which grew from the first, of giving each engine a name, and thus an extra bit of individu- ality. The names assigned were fanciful, such as Planet, Lion, or Comet; towns through which the railroad passed; officers or directors of the company; contem- porary celebrities or historic characters. The first loco- motive to draw a train from Providence into Connecticut at Stonington was named Roger Williams.
The first passenger cars were practically nothing but stagecoach bodies mounted upon four flanged wheels. The "brake man" occupied the seat on the outside formerly occupied by the "boots," and operated the brake by means of a long lever. There was room also "on top" for passengers. Very shortly the cars were enlarged by placing a number of stagecoach-type bodies together, back-to-back, built upon a single frame-an arrange-
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ment which still persists in the compartment cars which are in use abroad. In this country, perhaps on account of the spirit of democracy, or perhaps on account of the necessity for adequate heat, the old stagecoach style was abandoned within a few years, and a design adopted which was essentially the arrangement in use today and which was thus described by a contemporary commentator.4
The form and structure of the carriages is a source of considerable economy in the working of the lines. The pas- senger carriages are not distinguished, as in Europe, by different modes of providing for the ease and comfort of the traveller. There are no first, second, and third classes. All are first class, or rather of the same class. The carriage consists of a long body like that of a London omnibus, but much wider, and twice or thrice the length. The doors of exit and entrance are at each end; a line of windows being placed at each side, similar exactly to those of an omnibus. Along the center of this species of caravan is an alley or passage just wide enough to allow one person to walk from end to end. On either side of this alley are seats for passengers extending crossways. Each seat accommodates two persons; four sitting in each row, two at each side of the alley. There are from fifteen to twenty of these seats, so that the carriage accommodates from sixty to eighty passengers. In cold weather, a small stove is placed near the center of the carriage, the smokepipe of which passes out through the roof; and a good lamp is placed at each end for illuminating during the night. The vehicle is perfectly lighted and warmed. The seats are cushioned; and their backs, consisting of a simple wadded board, about six inches broad, are so supported that the passenger may at his pleasure turn them either way, so as to turn his face or his back to the engine. For the convenience of ladies who travel unaccom- panied by gentlemen, or who otherwise desire to be apart, a small room, appropriately furnished, is some times attached to the end of the carriage, admission to which is forbidden to gentlemen.
4 Dionysius Lardner, Railway economy: a treatise on the new art of transport (New York, 1850), Chapter 16.
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It may be noted as an exception that the Norwich and Worcester road provided, in its early operation, cars for "second class passengers."
Coupling the cars together was originally accomplished by means of a hook and a three-link chain. This was most unsatisfactory, as it resulted in dreadful jerks, both in starting and stopping. Improvements in draft gear were rapidly developed, however. The use of a single chain link fastened to the draft gear of each car by means of a fixed socket with a coupling pin dropped through it, was for many decades standard practice, though the pro- cedure of coupling was a source of frequent accidents to the trainmen, who were obliged to stand between the cars, guide the link, and hold the coupling pin ready to drop it through the socket and link at the moment of impact. The coupling pin of those days was also a dangerous weapon of offense, all too handy in railroad yards.
The early equipment was not provided with air- operated brakes, which were not introduced until the 'seventies. It was, therefore, necessary to employ a brakeman on each car. To stop the train the engineer would "whistle for brakes," which would then be set throughout the train by the brakemen.
Parlor or drawing-room cars were a relatively late development but, as early as 1840, the Norwich and Worcester Railroad acquired cars of some luxury. These cars were partitioned off across the center with the entrance at one end only. One "apartment" was "ap- propriated to ladies and gentlemen accompanying them." "From this," the directors proudly reported, "you enter into the other apartment which belongs solely to the ladies, and is carpeted and in every respect beautifully finished with wide and convenient sofas, dressing table,
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washstand and other arrangements for the comfort of passengers."
The early railroads of Connecticut were remarkably free from serious accidents at a time when railroads in other parts of the country were constantly experiencing mournful disasters. Year after year directors' reports announced freedom from loss of life and limb of their passengers. A tragic exception occurred, however, in 1853, in one of the country's most famous wrecks, when a New Haven bound train ran into an open drawbridge at South Norwalk. The state legislature was in session at the time, and in the general excitement which followed the disaster, legislation was passed prescribing that all trains must be brought to a full stop on approaching any drawbridge and before crossing another railroad at grade.
On that occasion also the general railroad commissions of Connecticut (predecessor of the present public utilities commission) was formed, to have jurisdiction over all railroads in the state, in order to insure that their affairs would be managed according to law, and "conformably with public safety and convenience." Provision was made at that time also to develop the beginnings of a uniform system of railroad accounting and the compilation of sta- tistics by the commission each year, as a basis for com- parison of data among the various railroads.
Previous to the appointment of the commission, rail- road legislation in Connecticut had been somewhat haphazard, and each railroad managed its affairs with little regard for its neighbors. The commission assumed general supervision over matters of safety and costs of operation, and over service, with particular reference to establishing convenient connections for passengers and
s'Three commissioners were provided for, at a compensation of three dollars per day each.
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freight between adjacent railroads-a subject which had been a source of considerable complaint from the public.
The compilation by the commission of operating statis- tics each year made available much information of value in comparing the efficiency of the various railroads in the state, in both construction and operation. Among the railroads the costs as published varied widely for a number of reasons, such as the type of construction adopted, length and slope of ruling gradients, curvature, the density of traffic handled, and the character of the territory traversed; in addition, of course, to the effi- ciency of the executive personnel.
In 1859, about twenty years after the first Connecticut railroad operation, approximately thirty million dollars had been invested in the railroads of the state. The gross cost, including rolling stock as well as fixed property, varied from $16,000 to $43,000 per mile of track operated.
IV
CONNECTICUT's two earliest railroad charters were granted in 1832, to the New York and Stonington Rail- road, projected to run between Providence and Stoning- ton; and to the Boston, Norwich and New London Railroad, to run between Norwich and Worcester. These two roads were, paradoxically enough, highly competi- tive, though they nowhere touched the same town, and ran in quite diverse directions.
As one of the chief interests among the pioneer railroad men of Connecticut lay in the through route between New York and Boston, and in the elimination of the somewhat difficult open-ocean voyage around Point Judith, the New York and Stonington Railroad was projected to connect the already established Boston and Providence Railroad with steamboats operating on the
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sheltered waters of Long Island Sound from the excellent harbor of Stonington. Likewise, the Boston, Norwich and New London Railroad was designed to connect the Boston and Worcester Railroad, as well as the thriving industrial communities along its route, with Long Island Sound, through the Thames river estuary, at Norwich.
It may be of interest to note in this connection that the Long Island Railroad was first planned in 1834 to provide a through route to Boston, via Brooklyn and Greenport, effecting connections between the eastern end of Long Island and the mainland by means of a ferry. It was con- sidered at that time that the construction of a railroad along the south shore of Connecticut would be quite im- practicable, on account of the number of rivers and tidal estuaries to be crossed, and that a ferry from Greenport would be a "convenient hotel with proper arrangements for rest and refreshments," which would prove "an agree- able and profitable relaxation for the passengers," occupying about two hours out of a total of about twelve hours for the entire distance between New York and Boston.
The Stonington road was the pioneer railroad to be operated on Connecticut soil, although (since only about six miles of its route lay within the boundaries of the state) it cannot be called strictly a Connecticut railroad. The route was surveyed and located by Major George Washington Whistler (father of the famous artist), who had been assigned by the United States Army for the work.
The road was opened between Providence and Stoning- ton in November, 1837, connecting with the Boston and Providence Railroad through what is now Roger Wil- liams Park, by means of a ferry across the harbor at Providence. This ferry was necessary because the Ston- ington road terminated at the west shore of the harbor,
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