USA > Illinois > Vermilion County > History of Vermilion County, Illinois : a tale of its evolution, settlement and progress for nearly a century, Volume I > Part 34
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that form the center of the silk to the base or place of attachment on the cob, and there fertilization takes place and the foundation for the new kernel is formed. The silks at the butt of the ear are the first to appear, and the first as a rule to be pollinated, while the tip kernels are the last to be fertilized, consequently the complete fertilization of the tip kernels of the ear depends on the continuance of good weather, and the late tasseling of nearby stalks in the . same field. Warm, balmy weather with a slight breeze is ideal for the transfer of corn pollen. Dashing rains at this season of the year wash the pollen from the tassel and a moist atmosphere prevents the grains from floating about. The developing kernel is fed from within the cob by a single duct that passes, in its course through the cob, between the soft white cellular pith and the woody portion, and enters a passageway through this woody portion to the base of the kernel.
The first period of growth of the kernel includes what is commonly referred to as the milk stage. Kernels in the milk are very sweet, due to the presence of sugar, which has not yet been transformed into storage starch. The protein, ash and oil are deposited in the germ before the endosperm or body of the kernel is filled out. Later the endosperm surrounding the germ is packed full of starch. Much of this material has been held in readiness in the stalk and is now deposited in the grain. The entire kernel is covered by a thin mem- branous layer called the tegmen, overlain by a tough coat called testa. This union forms what is termed the bran of wheat, and the hull of corn.
Germination is the resumption of growth of the young plant which lies within the seed. This young plant is the embryo or germ. The portion which is to produce the stem and the leaves lies toward the crown of the kernel, and is called the plumule. The portion which is the first root, lies toward the tip of the kernel and is called the radicle. The conditions of germination are: first, vitality; second, moisture; third, proper temperature, and fourth, oxygen. Take away any one of these four factors, and life will not awake from its slumber. The vitality of the kernels of corn is ruined by continued freezing or excessively high temperature. However, if corn has been thoroughly dried out before freezing weather arrives, then the germ of the kernel will not be injured by any amount of freezing.
Moisture in plants has four distinct functions in germination. It softens the covering of the seed, penetrates the minute cells of the seed coat, enters the large cells within, and by swelling them causes the entire seed to increase in size and ruptures the seed covering. Kernels of corn placed in water at a temperature of 70 degrees F. will absorb 15 per cent of their original weight in 52 hours. Kernels of corn having a large amount of flinty starch and horny gluten which acts as a sealing wax, require more time for germination than corn of a softer nature, and this accounts for the rotting of immature kernels when placed in the ground early in the spring, at which time it is cold and wet.
Moisture dissolves plant food and carries it to the growing embryo. A continual supply of available nutriment is demanded by the young plant, and the presence of water insures its transportation to every growing point.
Moisture also aids in the chemical and biological changes. By experiments, it has been determined that corn will germinate as low as 48 degrees F., and
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in as high a temperature as 115 degrees, but the optimum temperature is 93. Duting the month of May and the last two weeks of April, of 1907 and 1908, the writer took the temperature of the ground three inches under the surface at 2 o'clock every afternoon, for the planting and germinating period of corn, and found the temperature in 1907 to be 68 degrees, while the following year, 1908, the temperature was 74.1 degrees, as an average of the six weeks. It will be remembered that the percentage of stand in 1907 was very low, while in 1908 it was just the reverse, and the excessively low temperature was the cause of so much corn rotting in the ground before it became warm enough to cause germination. Cold, wet, mucky soils which exclude the warmer surface air, produce a weak plant and feeble advancement.
Oxygen is present in the seed, both in a free and a combined state; but this supply is insufficient for germination. The inhalation of this vital element is followed by the oxidation of the constituents stored in the seed and a conse- quent evolution of energy. With the intaking of oxygen there is a comparable outgoing of carbon dioxide gas. The principle upon which the tilling of the soil lies, is in the assistance of nature. A soil impenetrable to air resists the processes which bring about rapid and substantial growth. The unhealthy ap- pearance of corn on poorly drained soils is usually considered to be due to too much water, when it is really the lack of oxygen. Corn, when planted very deep in the early spring, is very slow in germinating, due to the fact that at this depth the temperature is exceedingly low, and the oxygen is excluded. Corn, at 80 degrees, will germinate nicely in four days, while in well prepared soil in the early spring. the young plant will not show above the ground before ten to twelve days.
It is hardly necessary that we take up the methods of improved cultivation as practiced at the present time, as there are several good methods of produc- ing a fine crop of corn. We will all agree, however, that there has been great advancement made in the manner of cultivating a crop of corn, as compared to the days twenty years ago. While this has been brought about largely by the use of improved machinery, the facts in the preceding pages have given us a better understanding why the fields should be prepared as they are now, and why the corn should be cultivated in the manner that it is, in order that we obtain the great yields that a number of the more progressive farmers are re- ceiving.
Not a great many years ago was the fact known, that corn was susceptible to improvement by breeding, and the honor of this discovery belongs to the Illinois Experiment Station at Urbana, Ill. The investigations that were started in 1896 at the Illinois station, have included the breeding of corn for increased yield, for improved quality, and for a high and low protein content, and high and low oil content. It has been clearly established that corn can be bred for increased power to yield, as well as many other characteristics, as may be de- sired. Within the last few years the progressive seed corn growers of Illinois united themselves into the world's first seed corn breeders' association and began breeding corn on a commercial scale. One of the most important im- provements that has thus far been made in the system of corn breeding is that
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which relates to the prevention of inbreeding. The inbreeding corn is con- trolled by the method in which the corn is planted in the breeding plot.
The breeding plot is a small field of ground containing from three to five acres, isolated from all other corn fields, to prevent the grains of pollen from any other variety of corn, mixing with that of the breeding plot. The field is planted in rows about thirty rods in length. Each row is planted with seed from a separate ear, using only one-half of the kernels'on the ear. The per- formance record of the plants from each individual seed ear is observed and accurately measured. It thus becomes possible to base our subsequent seed selected upon the performance records of the progeny from individual mother ears.
In this system of planting we are confronted by the problem of self-pollina- tion and of close pollination. In order to prevent this deteriorating influence in successful corn breeding, we detassel the alternate halves of each row; that is, we go through the breeding plots just at the time the tassels are making their appearance, before the pollen is matured, and pull out, not cut out, the tassels from the stalks of the east half of one row and the west half of the row adjoining, and so on, until all the rows are thus treated.
It is necessary to do this work at the proper time, and at intervals of every three or four days, till all the tassels have made their appearance. The ears of the detasseled stalks will thus be fertilized by pollen from stalks produced by seed other than its own.
This method absolutely prohibits self-pollination or close pollination of the future seed which is so destructive to good results in plant breeding of any kind. By self-pollination is meant the transfer of pollen from the male flower, the tassel of the corn plant, to the female flower, the silk of the same plant, and by close pollination is meant the transfer of pollen from the male flower of one plant to the female flower of another plant in the same row, both of which grew from kernels from the same ear. This method of detasseling insures cross pollination and markedly increases the yield of succeeding crops.
Within the last few years a new phase of corn breeding has been put into practice by the experiment stations and a few of the more scientific members of the corn breeders' association. This is the direct crossing of two stalks of corn or what is termed hand pollination. We know that when a perfect ear is fertilized, that it consists of several hundred kernels that were fertilized by pollen grains from possibly a hundred or more stalks. Therefore there is no record as to the sire of an ear of corn in any of the methods of corn breed- ing so far, and no methods have been adopted to show that the male parentage can be controlled, other than by the hand pollination method. This is an ex- ceedingly interesting and difficult operation, and in order to obtain results, the greatest care must be exercised.
In the breeding plot we select the two most promising rows that were planted with seed from the preceding season's high yielding strains, and in each row we select the two best individual stalks to be found, stalks that are as near our ideal as possible. The tassel of one is covered with a silk bag, while the young shoot or ear on the other stalk is covered with another silk bag. These bags are put on before the silks make their appearance, and before the pollen
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has begun to fall off the tassel. About three days later, or after a part of the pollen has fallen off the tassel into the bag, this bag is removed, the pollen carefully put into a small pan with a tight cover, and the bag replaced on the tassel. The pan with the pollen is then taken over to the stalk having the silk bag on the ear. Upon removing this bag it will be found that the young silks have begun to make their appearance, and have protruded beyond the end of the husks. An umbrella is held closely over this ear while the crossing is being made to exclude all foreign pollen. The pollen in the pan is now dusted gently over the silks of this ear, and owing to the mucilaginous secre- tions on the silks, the grains of pollen readily adhere to all the silks that are beyond the husks of the young shoot. The bag is then replaced and the same operation is performed every other day for three crossings or until all the silks show that they have been fertilized. This then gives a direct cross between two individuals as in livestock, and is the only method where both parents are under control. These ears that are thus treated are planted the following year in a separate isolated breeding plot, ear to the row system, performance record kept from this field we receive the highest yielding seed possible.
These ears are kept separate from all other corn and labeled with the record of their breeding. The selection of seed from the detasseled rows of the breeding ground is the next important step.
Just at the time that the corn plant has reached its zenith of growth be- fore killing frosts, and just as the ears are ripening, the detasseled halves of each row are inspected. and seed ears are selected for the following year. No ear is eligible for breeding unless it has been produced under normal cir- cumstances ; so every ear that is selected is taken from a hill of corn contain- ing three stalks, all producing ears. The breeding ears selected must be grown on stalks that stand up well, showing wind-resistant qualities. The ear must be about the right height from the ground, attached to the stalk with a short shank, that allows it to hang point downward, and must be the best developed ear in every respect, in the hill. These ears are all numbered, showing from what row and strain they are taken, and put into the seed house, which is artificially heated, where there is an excellent circulation of air, in order that they may thoroughly dry. After all the breeding ears have been selected, the entire field is husked, each row to itself, and the yield individually recorded.
The champion rows are then determined, taking into consideration the yield the average weight per ear, the number of barren stalks and suckers found in each row. The next year having preserved one-half of the seed of each mother ear, a number of the best producing rows are determined, and the remaining kernels are planted in an isolated plot of ground where they are free to cross- pollinate, and so combine the best characteristics of the high yielding rows. From this field seed is obtained to plant the multiplying ground the following year, which in turn furnishes enough seed for the commercial fields.
During the early spring every ear is tested for germination, then they are weighed, measured, shelled and the proportion of corn to cob determined. The number of rows, character of dent, size of germ, and shape of kernel are all recorded. the ear given a register number in the pedigree record, showing from what strain it had been produced, and then it is ready for planting.
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One of the essentials in corn breeding is uniformity. However, this should not be carried too far. If any one point receives too much attention, other desirable characteristics will be sacrificed and a decreased yield will be the re- sult. The desirable characters that should be perpetuated in breeding corn are early maturity, well shaped ear, uniform type of kernel, the ear placed at the right height on the stalk, and the stalk with wind-resisting qualities. Too much attention should not be given to the well filled ear, except for show purposes, and only those characters that tend to increase the yield of marketable corn should receive the greatest attention.
While there has been great advancement made in the production of corn within the last half century, there has been a comparable advancement in the management of the soil. Where our forefathers farmed is now the impover- ished lands, the higher parts of the fields, but with the advent of the steam dredge, and drain tile, the swamps that were, are now our fertile fields, pro- ducing the large yields and commanding the highest price of all the farming lands.
However, these lands will begin to lose their fertility, and the great prob- lem now confronting the farmers of Vermilion County as well as the corn belt, is how to maintain the fertility of these soils, and to make them better, richer in plant food, that they may produce the amounts of grains necessary to feed the ever-increasing population of this great country.
THE SHEEP INDUSTRY IN VERMILION COUNTY.
The sheep industry in Vermilion County had its beginning in a very small way. Most of the pioneers owned a few sheep, from the wool of which their clothing was made. These flocks grew as time went on, but they were used for home consumption, and not until the sixties, was there much shipping done. The nearest market of any consequence was Philadelphia; at that time five hundred sheep would break the market of Chicago. Farmers along the streams, in the wooded sections, experienced a good deal of trouble from milk-sick, or trembles, as it was commonly called, and sheep could not be handled in num- bers; but in the south part of the county and on the west prairies the advan- tages were better.
In 1848, James Milliken came to this county from Pennsylvania, and in about 1850 located on what is now known as the Thompson farm, south of Fithian, and probably was the first man to engage in the sheep business in Vermilion County. He continued successfully in this business for several years and here made the nucleus for his immense fortune. In 1858 he moved to Decatur. In 1900 he founded the James Milliken University of Decatur. In 1909 he died, a wealthy man and great philanthropist.
In about 1856, Peleg Spencer engaged in the sheep business on a farm where now is Central Park. His operations in this business were brought to a close rather suddenly, after several years of successful management, by some local capitalists discovering a flaw in his title to the land, and who took steps to secure it for themselves without his knowledge. This so discouraged him that he gave up his business and soon became a bankrupt and ruined man. John Cole of Ridge Farm, an early pioneer, later leased this farm and used it
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in connection with his land at Ridge Farm for the handling of sheep. Mr. Cole enjoyed a thriving business during the Civil war. Harrison Jones and Jno. E. Cooper of Georgetown, were leading sheep men of that section. Like Mr. Cole, their sheep numbered about two thousand. These men continued in this business many years, but finally almost abandoned it, conditions arising that made the outlook unfavorable. At the present time and for several years there has been no activity in this industry in that locality.
In 1862 Edwin and Edward Foreman brought five thousand sheep from Sandusky, Ohio, and located three miles west of Newtown, but remained there but five years, the marshy condition of that section only encouraged disease of the feet and rendered the business unprofitable. They moved to Champaign County near Penfield, where they continued the business successfully many years.
In 1864, Willy Fowler came to this county from Marion County, Ohio, with four thousand sheep and located on Pilot Grove Farm, a beautiful body of 4,000 acres of land, having natural drainage. This farm was well adapted to the grazino of sheep, and Mr. Fowler saw opportunities for a great business here and decided to remain permanently in this location, and in 1868 bought the farm. At this time the price of wool reached its zenith, and for two years Mr. Fowler sold 12,000 lbs. of A1 wool for 98 cents per pound, many of the fleeces weighting 24 lbs. each.
A few years later there were several men engaged in the sheep industry, but their flocks were limited to a few hundred head. Jacob and Samuel Frees and Mack Eyestone, along the extreme western border of the county were, quite successful. The· Freeses were breeders of fine Merino sheep and pro- duced many prize winners. Mr. Eyestone, now a resident of Urbana, relates an interesting experience. connected with his early handling of sheep. He drove a small band to Chicago, but found absolutely no market, and was herd- ing them on the flats south of the city, when he had an opportunity to trade his sheep for a frog pond and did so, feeling that he had practically given them away, but that frog pond today is worth a hundred thousand dollars. Others who handled sheep in bands of a few hundred were Jno. Smith (Eng.) of Po- tomac, Thomas Dye of Armstrong, John R. Thompson of Fithian and George Allen of Allerton, an Englishman who engaged in the breeding of fine Shrop- shires. He imported the male sheep from England. He was very successful and became famous among stock men for his prize winners, capturing first premiums at many fairs throughout this and adjoining states, for several years. He operated in this county from about 1872 to 1890. He later moved to Ne- braska.
Many disadvantages attended the first few years of the sheep business in this county; wolves were numerous then; it was necessary to build scarecrows and corral the sheep at night and herd them through the day; water was ob- tained for all stock by digging shallow wells, perhaps six or seven feet deep, and from these men would dip the water into troughs; it required only a short time to empty a well, but it would fill again in a few hours. Where there was much stock, a great many of these wells were necessary, and were often dug within a few rods of each other. Then, too, the railroad facilities were poor,
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the Wabash Railroad being the only one that crossed this county. This, in many cases, necessitated the hauling of wool and driving of sheep many miles to a shipping point ; but nevertheless, it was a very profitable business, as prices were high. But prosperity in this industry was destined to be of short life. Disease crept in through the bringing into this county of sheep with foot rot, scabbies and diseases of the head, rendering the business unprofitable. For a time owners struggled with these diseases, which were more disastrous than snowstorms or the ravages of wild animals, but as little was known then about combating with them, the business was abandoned for a few years and stock men devoted themselves to the raising and feeding of cattle, which, though much more desirable to handle, have never been the money-makers that sheep have been. After a few hard, freezing winters, which was supposed to eradi- cate these disease germs from the soil, the sheep business was again under- taken and more extensively, as advantages had materially improved. Shipping facilities were better, markets nearer, the old dug well and digging bucket had been discarded for the windmill and tubular well, with its inexhaustible supply of water, while very expensive then, it was welcomed by all progressive farm- ers and is today the popular mode of providing water for all purposes. There were days and weeks in summer that the wind did not blow, then men took the pump handles and bravely toiled through the livelong day in the broiling sun, scarcely able to satisfy the clamoring animals about them. Quite differ- ent is it now since the invention of the gasoline engine, which all large stock- men have and which can be hauled from one field to another. and attached to the pump, quickly providing water for the immense droves of many thousands of sheep, now common here.
Then when shearing time comes this same gasoline engine is placed in the great wool barns, and, attached to a sheep-shearing device (a modern invention) furnishes the power for a dozen men who have only to guide the clippers, quickly relieving the sheep of its beautiful fleece, without torture. So much for progressive America. No wonder our young men are amassing fortunes in this industry, when we consider their advantages over the pioneer stockmen, being within a few miles from shipping points and a few hours from the best stock market in the world today, with a report of the same at their doors daily.
True, there has never been a time when disease among sheep has been totally unknown, but the methods of treating them are so much improved and the quar- antine laws so rigid that dealers feel a much-needed protection.
There seems to be a tendency among sheep to develop that heretofore dreaded disease, Scabbies, but the ever thoughtful Uncle Sam has provided careful in- spection at all important stock yards and western sheep are absolutely required to go through the dipping vats, and in cases of herds from the home fields, if there is a suspicion of this disease, they are subjected to the same treatment. This careful attention reduces the horrors of this disease to a minimum. Scab- bies is a winter pest, while foot-rot is more prevalent in spring and summer and is more to be dreaded, as it is both contagious and infectious and up to the present time is pronounced incurable. For this disease there is now a strict quarantine law and for animals so afflicted there is no market. About the
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only thing to be done with them is to kill them and use them for fertilizers by burying.
In about 1898 there developed here a new disease called intestinal worm; this attacked only the lambs and was very fatal. This, coupled with the in- creasingly high price of land has led to a complete change in the sheep business in Illinois.
Methods of handling sheep too have changed. Formerly no attempt was made to house the animals or their coarse feed, but in these days of high prices there must be no waste, so huge sheds, with water piped into them, are built, covering sometimes an acre of ground and with a capacity for ten thousand sheep, with roughness stored above. These protect the feed as well as the flocks from heavy storms, thus avoiding the shrinkage which always follows extreme exposure.
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