USA > Indiana > A history of education in Indiana > Part 21
Note: The text from this book was generated using artificial intelligence so there may be some errors. The full pages can be found on Archive.org (link on the Part 1 page).
Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4 | Part 5 | Part 6 | Part 7 | Part 8 | Part 9 | Part 10 | Part 11 | Part 12 | Part 13 | Part 14 | Part 15 | Part 16 | Part 17 | Part 18 | Part 19 | Part 20 | Part 21 | Part 22 | Part 23 | Part 24 | Part 25 | Part 26 | Part 27 | Part 28 | Part 29 | Part 30 | Part 31 | Part 32 | Part 33 | Part 34 | Part 35 | Part 36 | Part 37
244
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
Superintendent of Public Instruction; and receive for, and distribute to, the township libraries such books as may be furnished for them, and advise such a disposition and use of them as will tend to increase their usefulness; and advise the trustee as to the most approved school furniture, appara- tus, and educational agencies."
Here was opportunity for large service to the schools. The office was immeasurably dignified by this bit of legis- lative confidence. The clerk was made also inspector and counselor. The trust was more than a civil office; it took on semi-professional aspects and functions. The examiner had new need to be a teacher and an educational leader. And such men were found. In the list of school examiners for 1865 and 1866, under Hoss, were such men as H. M. Shockley, of Henry County; D. D. Banta, of Johnson; W. W. Cheshire, of Lake ; Pleasant Bond, of Marion ; B. W. Smith, of Porter; Murry Briggs, of Sullivan; H. S. McRae, of Switzerland; J. M. Olcott, of Vigo; Rufus Patch, of La Grange; and Jesse H. Brown, of Wayne-all of them prac- tical and efficient school men, not only of that day, but for many years afterward. A little later perhaps, but in the same period, the official list includes the names of James H. Smart, A. E. Buckley, A. C. Goodwin, Clarkson Davis, Raw- son Vaile, William A. Bell, and others almost equally well known.
These were men that were more than examiners. Them- selves teachers, they knew how to make inspection of their schools profitable. It was a service that made the later re- vision of the law and an extension of the examiners' func tions possible.
For this added duty of supervision the examiner was to be paid three dollars a day for all the time actually em- ployed in the discharge of his functions, the board of com- missioners to determine the number of days in each year in which he might be so engaged.
Very generally and fairly this duty was performed. In the best counties the examiner was an inspector, visiting each
245
THE LAW OF 1873.
school at least once yearly. Meetings of the trustees were called in several counties, and the larger good accomplished that comes from wise co-operation. Occasionally the exam- iner was himself a teacher, being regularly employed, and so accomplished little or nothing in the way of visiting schools. Great good, however, had already resulted from the single officer in each county. The examinations were fairer; the grade of teachers had been improved; better texts were used ; trustees showed a more intelligent interest in the schools; institutes grew in favor, the State's knowledge of her system through statistical reports became more com- plete and trustworthy, and altogether the office had more than justified its existence. But the feeling grew that the good of the schools required a better and larger service than was possible under the administration of the examiner, at three dollars a day, and hedged by the numerous limitations incident to the varying policy of the local boards of com- missioners, and the negative constitution of the office. Su- perintendent Hobbs (1868) held that " to be able to judge of the practical qualities of teachers the examiners should spend enough time with them in their schools to know that their work is professionally done ; " and that "the entire time of one man is not too much for the work demanded in a ma- jority of the counties."
November 6, 1862, at the call of Superintendent Hoshour, the examiners met in convention at Indianapolis, discussing, with profit to themselves and the schools, the qualifications of teachers, modes and conditions of examinations, school visits, reports, etc. It was evident that, however well the work might be done in particular counties, it was badly done or not at all in others; and, in the best event, without the shadow of uniformity as to the aims of the office, or the legal or moral means for their accomplishment. There was no concert of effort, and no unity of official sentiment that gave large promise of better things. The only agreement was as to the necessity of more definite requirements and some positive authority in the hands of the county school
17
246
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
control. For the next ten years, from this and subsequent examiners' meetings, from township associations, county in- stitutes, the State Teachers' Association, State Board of Edu- cation, the trustees and faculty of the State Normal School, and from prominent teachers and officials throughout the State, the demand was specific for a law that should "expand the powers, duties, compensation, and even the name of the county examiner, to those of County Superintendent."
It was therefore recommended by Superintendent Hop- kins, in his first report,* that the office of School Examiner be abolished, and that of County Superintendent be created ; that the County Superintendent be a practical teacher; that he have the general superintendence of the schools of the county, and visit each school at least once each year; that he have an office furnished him at the county seat; that he be required to examine the official dockets, records, books, papers, and accounts of the justices of the peace, clerk of the court, auditor, and commissioners, and see that all fines, forfeitures, and liquor licenses, etc., are promptly collected and paid over; and that he, together with the township trustees, and the school trustees of cities and towns, should constitute a County Board of Education, which should con- sider the general wants and needs of the school and school property of the county, and of which the superintendent should be ex officio president.
1. County Superintendency.
In accordance with these recommendations, and in har- mony with the educated public sentiment, the act of 1873 (March 8th), since known as the "County Superintendency Law," was passed. It was a great step forward ; not so much for what it did radically as what it made possible; not because of any marked change of system, as the chance of improvement in its administration. In the words of Dr. Smart : "The act did not create a new office, as many have
* Sixth Biennial Report, 1872, p. 153.
247
THE LAW OF 1873.
supposed, but merely enlarged the powers of an old officer and changed his title. The County Examiner was a county superintendent, in fact. The County Superintendent ex- amines and licenses teachers; so did the examiner. The superintendent makes certain reports to the county auditor and to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction ; so did the examiner. The superintendent visits the schools of the county; so did the examiner ; the superintendent holds county institutes; so did the examiner. The truth is that we have had * county superintendency in Indiana for more than twenty-five years, the chief difference between the pres- ent and the former system being that the one provides for an efficient supervision, while the other did not."
The really new features of the law are those that made visitation of schools obligatory, the organization and, as far as possible, the personal direction of the township institutes by the superintendent, the examination of official records for the possession or recovery of school moneys, and a closer connection with the internal administration of the schools.
The superintendent's compensation was fixed at four dol- lars per day for time actually employed, the number of days in the year to be fixed by the commissioners, but not to be less than one day for each school in the county. His election is by the township trustees, on the first Monday in June in each odd year, since 1873. The only requirements as to quali- fication are that he must be an elector of the county, and have been a resident therein for not less than one year. Women have been held not eligible to the office. As early as June, 1875, the commissioners in Lake County appointed Mrs. B. B. Cheshire to the position; but the day following, upon the opinion of the Attorney-General, reconsidered their action, and elected Mr. J. M. McAfee instead. Occasionally in other counties the policy has been attempted, but never fully inaugurated.+
* December, 1876. See Eighth Biennial Report, p. 91.
+ Sce section 4540 of School Law, 1885.
248
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
The County Superintendent has general charge of the schools of his county, except over cities employing their own superintendent. He examines all teachers both in cities and rural districts. He presides at meetings of the County Board of Education; directs the holding of township and county institutes; hears appeals from local officers; advises concerning the course of study; inspects the school fund and revenue accounts of his county; and makes all official reports to the State Superintendent from his county except the purely financial ones.
What the contemporary rural school is in Indiana is very largely dependent upon the county superintendency, and the system and administration incident thereto. The office is a responsible one. It should be filled by capable persons only and be fairly independent, as are other county offices, in its own affairs. The county superintendency is generally and very fairly regarded, not in Indiana alone, but else- where, as a fundamental factor in the maintenance of any State system. To the end that his administration be accorded the respect his office deserves, he has need to be a man of large and general education. The rural schools, whose rep- resentative he is before the people, are entitled to the most scholarly service which the public purse can afford. No half-educated school-boy or unread teacher, or provincial experience, should be intrusted with this responsible duty of directing even the most elementary instruction in the peo- ple's school. If the room-teacher is to be held to minimum requirements as to scholarship, much more should the super- intendent. A liberal academic standard should be estab- lished and insisted upon.
But in the office of school inspector there must be more than scholarship. The system and organization, the com- pactness and uniformity, made possible by this centralization of authority, are only evil unless rationalized by a sound professional insight and clear notions of the means and ends of education. As it would be absurd to choose a super- intendent of a factory, a foreman of a shop, a manager of a
249
THE LAW OF 1873.
railroad, or a commissioner of streets, because he chanced to be a Scotchman, a sectarian, a Turk, or a Knight of La- bor, regardless of his knowledge of the industries repre- sented in the factory, the shop, the railroad, or the making of highways, so it is equally irrational to limit the selection of overseers of schools and teaching to electors careless of their knowledge of, or even interest in, either schools or teaching.
But more than this, the results of the system in Indiana, as in every other State, show that, besides having general scholarship and special insight, both of which in a way may go along with the mere student and recluse, the superin- tendent has need to be a teacher. School-room experience would seem to be indispensable. Intelligently to criticise a lesson, or an instance of discipline, a working programme, or a course of study, questions of management, neighbor- hood factions, school methods, or educational doctrine, it is needed that one be able to look at them and handle them, each and all, from the point of view of the school-room, in the presence of its limitations, and with its more or less nar- row but very definite outlook.
Another lesson clearly taught by the experience of twenty years in Indiana is the need of a larger tenure of office, the security of longer administrations. Doubtless a rigid insist- ence upon the higher standard of qualifications, and reason- able pay for the better service, would easily accomplish these results and more. It is believed that the experiment is worth trying; and the interests of the schools, it would seem, de- mand a movement to this end. For eighteen years the aver- age length of service in this office has been less than four years. Better a longer term with fair qualifications and skill than the constantly changing policy characterizing some counties. In a dozen counties the average length of service has been something more than eleven years, varying from four to eight terms. Of course, in a large majority of the remaining counties the single term fully measures the length of each administration.
250
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
But, despite the disadvantage incident to the office and the mode of election, the insufficient pay and a partial rec- ognition, the lack of professional standards, and the hinder- ance of occasional local antagonisms, the office has accom- plished much for the Indiana rural school. And the efficiency of Indiana's country school system is the pride of the State, educationally. For bringing about a large share of this im- provement the county superintendency must be credited.
2. The County Board of Education.
The last-mentioned act-the County Superintendency Law of 1873-provided also for a County Board of Education.
As has been suggested already, in all the earlier history of the system the only approach to a county organization was in the existence of a Board of School Commissioners, whose functions, however, were purely prudential, or the three examiners, with specific and limited duties; neither having at first any administrative authority; the former being abolished in 1849, and the latter in 1861, giving way by law to a single examiner, whose functions were at best only incidentally administrative.
Prior to 1873, therefore, the organization of the schools only escaped the charge of being a district system by follow- ing a quasi township policy. The control was local and lacking in unity. In 1854, with 91 counties, the organization was cut up into 95 cities and towns and 938 townships; or 1,033 independent school corporations. The number had in- creased to 1,101 in 1865. The act of 1873, however, not only required that the several schools of a given township should constitute one system, but that the trustees of all the town- ships in any county should co-operate in certain matters, using common means to a common end. The board is com- posed of the County Superintendent, the trustees of the town- ships, and the chairman of the school trustees of each town and city of the county, who meet semi-annually to "consider the general wants and needs of the schools and school prop- erty of which they have charge, and all matters relating
251
THE LAW OF 1873.
to the purchase of school furniture, books, maps, charts, etc." *
The authority of the board is a form of centralization that has had in Indiana a wholesome influence. While offering no sort of interference with the fundamental privi- leges of the localities, it affords an economical means of administering the system, with the privileges that accrue from conference and co-operation, and in the interests of a larger public.
The board may adopt a course of study for the district schools, and in most counties this has been done. It has no power, however, to make contracts; it has no control of revenues, nor power to order expenditures. Here it can only advise and counsel. Its large service to the schools of the county has been in the free conference and voluntary concert of action; in regulating the standard of examination of teachers; in the gradation of schools, the classification and promotion of pupils, and in the mutual suggestion and re- enforcement that come from intelligent conference and joint deliberation. What the township control is to the system the County Superintendent and the County Board are in the administration of the system. From their conferences have come enlarged salaries, longer school terms, selective employ- ment of teachers, an integration of the system, and a general public confidence in the common schools of hopeful promise for the future. Of course, whatever objections lie against the theory or workings of the township trusteeship apply with a like force to the board which the trustees jointly com- pose.
* This responsibility of selecting books was withdrawn from the board by the act of 1889, providing for State uniformity.
252
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE PRESENT SYSTEM.
I. STATE CONTROL.
STATE control of education in most States takes on two forms: The one, looking to an official management of the sys- tem, gathers statistics, keeps the books, apportions the funds, and in general represents the State. The officer is variously named in different States, but was first called in Indiana the Superintendent of Common Schools, and later, as now, the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The other form looks, in general, to a closer connection with the working of the schools, supervises courses of study, advises concerning text- books, gradation, graduation, etc., regulates the State-certifi- cating of teachers, and operates to unify the several other- wise unrelated institutions under their control into a common organization. This latter function is generally fixed in a State board, variously constituted, and unequally efficient, now of broader now narrower sphere, and, in some States, wholly wanting, the duties devolving upon the State Super- intendent. In most States the board was introduced along with a developed system. Indiana had a "Superintendent of Common Schools" in the Treasurer of State for ten years prior to the creation of a State board. Each of the forty-four States has such an officer, though variously named. In twenty-three the title is the same as in Indiana. In two States-Connecticut and Massachusetts-he is known by the name of and serves as the secretary of the State Board of Education; in one-Delaware-as the president of the State Board of Education; and in one-West Virginia-as the State Superintendent of Free Schools; apparently a victorious remnant of the old conflict between "Free " and "Tuition " schools.
253
THE PRESENT SYSTEM.
1. The Superintendent of Common Schools.
By the law of 1843 the Treasurer of State was declared to be ex officio Superintendent of Common Schools, and re- quired to prepare annually and submit to the General As- sembly a report setting forth the condition and amount of funds and property devoted to education; the condition of colleges and academies, county seminaries, common schools, both public and private; estimates and accounts of school expenditures, and "plans for the management and improve- ment of the Common School Fund, and for the better organ- ization of the common schools."
These duties were put upon the treasurer not because he was supposed to have any special fitness for their perform- ance, but (1) because, for the time, the chief interest of edu- cation centered in the preservation and management of the school fund; (2) because all civil educational agencies were yet but imperfectly differentiated from the older adminis- trative machinery, and the treasurer was the most available official to accomplish the ends in view. The like policy had been, and was then to be, found in other States. The new function must work out its own adapted organization-a task it took years to accomplish.
The State treasurers acting as Superintendent of Common Schools were: George H. Dunn, 1841 to 1844; * Royal May- hew, 1844 to 1847; Samuel Hannah, 1847 to 1850; James P. Drake, 1850 to 1853.
Nine reports were issued, chiefly financial and statistical, in the years from 1843 to 1851, inclusive, and may be found in the regular reports of the State treasurer, or, except the sixth (for 1848), in the documentary journals for the same period. They are interesting relics of an early attempt at a State system of schools.
While the law gave the superintendent power to require of county auditors, school commissioners, and township and district officials full information in relation to the duties of
* Full official term as treasurer.
254
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
their respective offices, the condition of funds and proper- ties, and the management of schools, the actual reports are very meager and unsatisfactory, and reveal little of the state of education throughout the most critical period in Indiana history.
The machinery of the system was such as to make the gathering of accurate statistics impossible. There was so little uniformity in the various counties, and even townships, with reference to school affairs, that statistics, if had, would have served no useful purpose. And, lastly, the oversight of schools was supplemental to the legitimate interests of the Treasurer of State, an incident of the office, foreign to its accustomed administration, and so, naturally perhaps, neg- lected. Nevertheless, the duties were in general honestly performed, and as efficiently as in other States whose exist- ing civil officers were intrusted with the like responsibility.
2. Superintendent of Public Instruction.
By the school law of 1852 the State treasurer's official connection with the schools was severed by the provisions of sections 71 to 85, for the election by the qualified voters of the State, at the general election, of a "State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who shall hold his office for two years."
This superintendent was required to spend each term at least ten days in each of the ten judicial circuits; to recom- mend a list of books, and superintend the purchase and dis- tribution of the township libraries; to determine appeals from township trustees, have a watchful care of the educa- tional funds, to prepare all blank forms for his office, and receive reports from county auditors and treasurers, and. township trustees and clerks; make a report to the General Assembly when in session, and to the Governor on inter- vening years; either by himself or deputy to examine all applicants for license, to preside at all meetings of the State Board of Education, and to deliver an address to the board upon his induction into office, "setting forth his views of the
255
THE PRESENT SYSTEM.
best method of giving efficiency to our educational system, with such suggestions as he may deem worthy of their con- sideration "-all for thirteen hundred dollars, and a possible clerk for not more than six months each year at two dollars a day.
Much of this paragraph, fixing the duties of the superin- tendent, is significant only when it is remembered that for thirteen years he was the one professional member of the board-the others being State officers, and members ex officio only. The function of the board was rather advisory; the insight into schools, the management of details, and the final interpretation lay with the superintendent. It was a respon- sible position and generally ably filled.
Below is given a table of the superintendents in order of time to the present, with the times of beginning and closing of each term:
List of Superintendents of Public Instruction.
NAMES.
Beginning of term.
Close of term.
William Clark Larrabee
Nov. 8, 1852.
Caleb Mills.
Nov. 8, 1854. Feb. 10, 1857.
Nov. 8, 1854. Feb. 10, 1857. Feb. 10, 1859.
Died in May, 1859.
Samuel Lyman Rugg
Feb. 10, 1859.
Feb. 10, 1861.
Miles Johnson Fletcher
Feb. 10, 1861.
May 11, 1862.
Samuel Kleinfelder Hoshour. . .
May 15, 1862.
Nov. 25, 1862. Mar. 15, 1865.
Term expired. Resigned.
Barnabas Coffin Hobbs
Oct. 13, 1868.
Mar. 15, 1871.
Term expired.
Milton Bledsoe Hopkins.
Mar. 15, 1871.
Aug. 16, 1874.
Died Aug. 16, 1874.
Alexander Campbell Hopkins. James Henry Smart.
Aug. 16, 1874. Mar. 15, 1875.
Mar. 15, 1875.
Term expired. 66
John McKnight Bloss
Mar. 15, 1881.
Mar. 15, 1883.
John Walker Holcomb
Mar. 15, 1883.
Mar. 15, 1887.
66
66
Harvey Marion La Follette
Hervey Daniel Vories
Mar. 15, 1887. Mar. 15, 1891.
Mar. 15, 1891.
66
Term expired. Killed on R.R. Resigned.
Samuel Lyman Rugg.
Nov. 25, 1862.
George Washington Hoss.
Mar. 15, 1865.
Oct. 13, 1868.
Mar. 15, 18S1.
Term expired.
William Clark Larrabee
Of the superintendents who held the office not too much praise can be spoken. They were generally scholarly and efficient.
256
UNDER THE NEW CONSTITUTION, 1851-'91.
Larrabee organized the system and rendered a large serv- ice, the credit for which is greatly magnified when it is re- membered as a pioneer work not for Indiana alone but for most of the West. Mills was the leading influence in the selection of books and their purchase and distribution to townships as school libraries. Rugg made a thorough offi- cial inspection of, and established, the State school finances, and made the Indiana School Journal the official organ of the department. Fletcher improved the institutes and cor- rected the anticipation of revenues. Hoshour called the first convention of examiners and used his influence, official and personal, to secure the selection of a larger proportion of women as teachers. Hoss, either directly or indirectly, secured the addition of history and physiology to the list of common school branches, State aid to county institutes, the replenishment of township libraries, the incorporation of the State Normal School, and the re-enactment of the law allow- ing local taxation in cities and townships for tuition pur- poses. During this administration, also, the adoption of school texts was put into the hands of the township trustees, and the State board relieved of the duty. Under Hobbs, in- struction in German was made optional in the public schools, an act for the education of negroes was passed, the girls' reformatory was planned, and Purdue University founded. Hopkins was chiefly instrumental in the establishment of the county superintendency, in reforming the examinations of teachers, in reclaiming considerable sums of school mon- eys, and balancing the State's school finances. Smart, be- sides a large service to the schools of the State in a wise direction of legislation and an integration of the system, made Indiana known, and honorably known, among the States of the Union and among foreign states, through the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, and the World's Fair at Paris, two years later. Besides these and other services incident to the administration of the office, Mr. Smart began during his term and completed the year following the codification of the School Laws of the State
Need help finding more records? Try our genealogical records directory which has more than 1 million sources to help you more easily locate the available records.