USA > Massachusetts > Dukes County > The Wampanoag Indian tribute tribes of Martha's Vineyard : the story of the Capowacks of Nope, the Takemmy-Wampanoags, the Nunpaug-Wampanoags, the Aquinnah-Wampanoags of Catachukutcho (Gay Head tribe), the Chappaquiddick-Wampanoags > Part 1
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GEN
THE WAMPANOAG INDIAN TRIBUTE TRIBES
ALLEN COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY
of
3 1833 01858 1873
MARTHA'S VINEYARD
GC 974.401 D88TR
By Milton A. Travers
This work we humbly dedicate to the memory of the charitable and tolerant Colonial settlers of Martha's Vine- yard and to all their descendants whose illustrious heri- tage was handed down to them by the old Reverend gentlemen - for they recognized the dignity in man and proved that the cloak of a primitive culture did not mask a being and make of him a savage.
M. A. T.
WASHAP PRO U
LENSONGO
WEKSHEPACASSET
MUSKRIVEAK
HEPISSE
NANANNAWHE
ATTA PAH QUET KUNĄUK
MENEKSET
TRIBE
PTUNQUAKE
WEGOATNE
TAXEMMY
NeAUG
RIGE
QUAN
CHAPPAQUIDOVE
PAKSHMUX
WANESQUE
Mi
TRIL
WEQJOBSKET
WEKAOCH AVK
WAS HOWA
*
AQUIDENESET'
QUE PUHAVKET
This map, although obviously very old, is believed to be a copy ofy an original that showed the Indian names of localities on Martha's Vineyard.
SANGERENTÜKET
NASHOWĄKOMMUSA
AQUINNAN CATACHK
WAWITY
VINA TURET
WKSSET
TECHEKTUMESET
MASA POSTAWIE
OGKESHKUPPE
CAPAWACK P.E.
TAKEMMY
-
THE WAMPANOAG INDIAN TRIBUTE TRIBES OF MARTHA'S VINEYARD
THE STORY OF THE CAPOWACKS OF NOPE
THE TAKEMMY-WAMPANOAGS
THE NUNPAUG-WAMPANOAGS
THE AQUINNAH-WAMPANOAGS OF CATACHUKUTCHO (GAY HEAD TRIBE)
THE CHAPPAQUIDDICK-WAMPANOAGS
(By
-
MILTON A. TRAVERS
REYNOLDS PRINTING, INC. REYNOLDS-DEWALT NEW BEDFORD, MASS. 1960
First Printing 1960 Copyright C, 1960, by Milton A. Travers All Rights Reserved
Photo on cover is that of Deacon Simon Johnson (1794-1880) (circa) who is believed to have been the last full-blooded male Martha's Vineyard Indian.
Photo Reproduced Courtesy Dukes County Historical Society
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
Introduction
. 9
Chapter One. CULTURE
A. The Home and Village . . 17
B. Food 18 .
· C. Fishing and Hunting 19
D. Tools
1. Bows .
2. Arrowheads 25 ·
3. Arrow Shafts 27 ·
4. The Stone Ax and Spear .
31
E. Appearance and Dress . 31 .
F. Games and Amusements . ·
33
G. Government and Religion 34 ·
H. Lore and Legend 38 ·
Chapter Two. THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD (Christianity and Conversion)
A. The Arrival of the Settlers . 42
B. Hiacoomes, The First Indian Convert 43 .
C. The Indian Pastors . 50
D. The Struggle to Maintain Tribal Entity . . 51
Chapter Three. ENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY
A. The Christiantown Tribe ·
54
B. The Deep Bottom Tribe . 55
C. The Chappaquiddick Tribe · 55
D. The Gay Head Tribe 57
Official Massachusetts Indian Census of 1861 A Complete List of all the Martha's Vineyard Indian Family Heads Living in 1861 63
Bibliography
. 77
Acknowledgments
. 78
·
23
23
·
MARTHA'S VINEYARD ISLAND
150 square miles of beouty Lotitude 41:28, Longitude 70:35 Nomed in 1602 by Bartholomew Gosnold Ook Bluffs to Edgortown-6 miles Ook Bluffs to Vineyord Hoven-3 miles Vineyard Hoven to West Tisbury-7 miles West Tisbury to Chilmork-5 miles Chilmork to Menemsho-1 mile Chilmark to Goy Head-7 miles Edgortown to Chilmork-14 miles Winter populotion-6,500 Summer population-40,000. A wonderful vocotion-Island; on ideol year 'round home.
VINEYARD SOUND
-O-WEST CHOPLIGHT
MINK MEADOW
WEST CHAP
VINEYARD
GOLF YWCA'CAM HAVEN
O- EAST CHOPLIGHT
HERRING
.
THE HIGHLANDS
HARDOR
EAST CHẤP HẠCH CLUB
CHAPPAQUONSETT
OAK BLUFFS
JASHMICO
NORTON'S POINT
HAVEN
TPIN BEACH
BLUFFS
TOWN BEACH - TOWN PIER
LAMBERTS COVE
TISBURY
HEIGHT
FARM POND
W-
E-
PAUL'S POINT
OAK GO
CiLDARTRITE NECK
INDIAN
STATE > ROAD
BLUFFS
ARM
HE WORKS
NECH / SENGEKONTACKET
S
POND
CAPE Poor
CAPE PAGE
MAJ
EDGARTOWN BAY
CAPE POGE
LIGHT
ISLAND
SEVEN GRAYS FED GATES
SHELP SHEAR 1 POND
FARM
TISBURY
ITY
TRAPP'S
OLD PRINTMAY
ION
EDGARTOWN OUTER HARBOR
POGE
HARBORLIGHT
BAY
YACHT CLUB *
WEST. TISBURY VILLAG
TAKEMMY
EDGARTOWN
EA
ONE
CHAPPAQUIDDICK
CHILMARK
MENEMSHA
BIGHT
MENEMZMA
MIDDI
STATION
LOBSTERVILLE
GAY HEADL KINT
CHILMARK VILLAGE
SOUTH
CRANSLAKY LANDS
MENEMSHA
GAY HEAD
POND
0
STONE WALL DEAOM
JIBROCKET
POND
SAWSNOCKE
SQUISHOCKET POINT
2. ROAD /D
80
COM
ISLAND
OSE
WATCHA POND
JOSS NECK
-KATAMA
KATAMA BAY
KATAMA PY
EDGARTOWN
BAY
DVASQUE BLUFF
GREAT
GREAT POND
FOND
CHO
BLACK
CHIL MARK POND
SEPONO
SOUTH BEACH
SOUTH BEACH
NORTON'S POINT
CAFE HIGGON
Y' ROAD
COUNTY AIRPORT
TRAIL
EDGARTOWN
BEACH
POND
WHYTUCKET COVE
ROARING BROOK
SAMPSON's HILL
NULerCOVE
WASHAQUA Hu
KATAMA
poi
TISBURY
~ POND
JOANNECK (TENNIS
POND
Cour
MATTAKKORTT CREEK
E'5
ANASQUE POINT
WEST
SABAN la
MENADA (TOWN) BEACH
CAPE
JOHN OLIVER'S POINT
GOLF
EDGARTOWN
PORT
NORTH COUN
EDG.)
STATE 8FACH
SOUTH ISTA
KA
AFOON DONE
Z
1
VINEVAR
[YACHT
COVE ROAD GO
INTRODUCTION
This will be an attempt into the history of the Indians of Martha's Vineyard, an island located off the southeast coast of Massachusetts.
Martha's Vineyard is separated from the Elizabeth Islands and the Massachusetts Mainland by Vineyard Sound. The Island area contains approximately 150 square miles. It was discovered by Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, and became part of Massachusetts from 1644-1654 after which it was independent for seven years; and, then, became permanently annexed to Massachusetts in 1691. The British invaded the Island in 1778 1678, and again in 1812. The topography is generally level and contains a number of villages, some of which are now favorite summer resorts.
Martha's Vineyard was formerly a whaling center and an important fishing locality. It is now an attraction to thousands of tourists and summer vacationists.
Within the old Indian section of Gay Head the Island offers to the visitor a sight unparalleled in New England. The phenomenon of the colored Gay Head cliffs (Catachukutcho) and the view from their heights are scenically awe-inspiring. Geologists and archaeologists have for years studied fossils and artifacts discovered within the area.
Gay Head is one of the only two Indian townships in Massachusetts, and it is still governed by descendants of the original aborigines. At Gay Head much of the traditions of the Wampanoag Indians are still preserved.
Much of the information and facts that form the compilation of this work have been gleaned from voluminous accounts and documents that have been discarded by the generations. We are pleased to have discover- ed and herein preserved in one volume the interesting and conclusive facts of these aborigines as left for posterity by worthy amateur and scholarly intellectuals of the 1600's.
In this readable history we have compiled facts from the works of ancient contemporary writers such as Gosnold's Mr. Gabriel Archer, Gilbert, and Brereton (Strachery-1613); Govenor Bradford of Plymouth Colony; Sir Ferdinando Gorges; the Captains Thomas Dermer, John Smith, Harlow and Hunt; the ancient Dutchmen, DeLaet and Fines; and the early settlers of the mainland and the Island, Edward Winslow, Daniel Gookin; the Reverends John Eliot, Thomas Mayhew, Thomas Mayhew, Jr., Cotton Mather, Roger Williams, and others who worked and lived with the original Wampanoag Indians of the Island and surrounding mainland. We will quote from many sources including the Massachusetts Archives and from land deeds of the locality. We will state information and tradi- tion handed down from original Indian and Colonial ancestry as told to
[ 9 ]
us by their descendants or copied from ancient worm-eaten pages of forgotten authors.
The Wampanoag Indians at the time of first contact with the white man had not bothered with the written word for they had not devised an alphabet. It must be realized that the English recorder of the 1600's had to render the Indian's unfamilar guttural sounds as best he could despite the fact that many of the red men's vocal sounds had no counter- part in English. Adding to the confusion was the natural difference in spelling since the actual spelling was anybody's guess.
Even to this day the Wampanoag Indian spelling has not been stand- ardized. Through the years many of the Indian names and words have been carelessly mutilated and corrupted beyond original intent and recognition. With all these complexities in mind, we have used the most popular or common spellings as found in the original sources.
This history of the four tribute tribes of the Wampanoag Indian Federation that inhabited Martha's Vineyard in the early seventeenth century is the first factual and comprehensive account of the story of the Takemmies, the Nunpaugs, the Aquinnahs and the Chappaquiddicks.
Their Wampanoag brethren on the mainland called them the Capowacks (variously spelled, Capawacks; Copaock; Capoag; Cape Pogue; Cape Acke; and C. Ack). Their island home was called Nope (Noe-pe).
Thereby, to the Indians on the mainland, the four Wampanoag Tribute Tribes on the Island of Martha's Vineyard were known collectively as the Capowacks of Nope (originally spelled Capoags as in Wampanoag).
Nope or Nop was their word for "water (bitter)", and when used in association with the name Capowack it took the meaning of "land surrounded by water", or "land surrounded by 'bitter' water." The word "Nip" was their word for water also. However, when pronounced as "Nip" it took on the meaning of "fresh water", or the opposite of "Nop. "
Due to the Island's remoteness and vastness of its pine and oak forest, it was a natural refuge to those alienated by the mainland Indians. These poor souls here readily found adoption and protection from their immediate troubles. Thereby, the people of Nope were known to the Wampanoag mainlanders as Capowacks which means, "The land, or place, of the people who harbor others"; or, "The refugee place."
The Takemmy-Wampanoags inhabited the area that is now called Tisbury.
The Nunpaug-Wampanoags lived in the area now the site of Edgartown.
The Aquinnah-Wampanoags occupied the section that is now called Gay Head, then known as Catachukutcho.
{ 10 }
The Chappaquiddicks lived within the area that is still called by that name.
At the time of the arrival of the first white settlers, the Capowacks of Nope owed their allegiance to Ousamequin (Massasoit), who was the great Sachem of the Wampanoag Indian Federation, a group of thirty or forty tribes that inhabited the area now Southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The Wampanoag Indian Federation to- gether with the Massachusetts Federation, The Pawtuckett Federation, The Narrangansett Federation, and The Pequot Indian Federation were the confederated Indian tribes which comprised the Algonquin Indian Nation native to New England.
The earliest historical records declare the name of "Epanow" as the Sagamore of the Capowack-Wampanoags. According to the Plymouth Colonial Records, Epanow was summoned to Plymouth by Ousamequin (Massasoit) along with all other Sagamores of the Wampanoag Indian Federation, whereupon they recorded their marks to the famous Treaty of Amity on March 22, 1621. This record in fact proves the allegiance of the Martha's Vineyard tribes to the Wampanoag Indian Federation. A Sagamore (from Sachi-moah) was a tribute chief who held sway over two or more sub- tribes of the Federation.
It is believed that the Norsemen were the first white men to have visited the Island of Nope. Their visitation has been set at the year 1000. Records have placed the navigator Verranzo on the shores of our Island as early as the year 1524. Sir Fernando Gorges and his steward, Mr. Richard Vines, backed several explorations to the Island of Nope. We all know about Captain Bartholomew Gosnold's settlement close by on the Island of Cuttyhunk in the year 1602, and of his visits and trading with the aborigines of the Island and the mainland.
It has been established that it was Gosnold who named the Island Martha's Vineyard, in honor of his oldest child, Martha. History gives Gosnold credit for discovering the Island. It is also interesting to note that many of the early writers constantly referred to the Island as Martin's Vineyard.
The famous Captain John Smith sailed within the vicinity in the year 1614, for he wrote, " ..... next to this is Capowack and those abounding countries of copper, corn, people, minerals, which I went to discover this last year but because I miscarried by the way I will leave them 'till God please that I have better acquaintance with them .. "
In the year 161], Captain Edward Harlow sailed from England; and it is known that he, too, landed upon the Island, as we learn through the following quote. "At Capowack they took Cawnacome (Chief of the main- land Manomet-Wampanoags ) and Epanow but the people of Agawam used them kindly, so with five savages they returned for England. "
This last quote is one of interest and importance. It is the first recorded mention of the name of Epanow. The story of Epanow is an
[ 11 ]
[ 12 ]
This photograph of William Allen Wall's four by seven foot oil painting depicts Gosnold and party trading with the Wampanoags at "Smoking Rocks," a section of New Bedford, Massachusetts at the foot of Howland Street and opposite Palmer's Island. Mr. Wall's excellent portrayal was completed in 1842 and now hangs in the Old Dartmouth Historical Society and Whaling Museum in New Bedford. It is re- produced here for the first time through the courtesy of the museum and Mr. Philip F. Purrington, curator.
interesting one. He was the son of the powerful chief on the island at the time of Harlow's visit, who, along with the other Indians mentioned within the quote, was kidnapped by Harlow and taken to England and sold as slaves. The story of this Indian's capture and return as taken from the "Briefe Relation" (Mass. Hist. Coll., Vol. IX pp. 2-25) is quaint and interesting:
Epanow (Apanow, Epenew) was the first Sachem mentioned by the early recorders as leader of the Capowack-Wampanoags. Because he held sway over the four tribute tribes on the Island, he was also a Sagamore of the Wampanoag Indian Federation. At the time of his capture and kidnapping in 1611, he was the son of the leading Sachem, whose name was never recorded.
Epanow and his companions were taken to England, where he soon learned the language and very cunningly told his captors of the vast amounts of gold and other wealth in his homeland. He managed to instill a great desire for this booty in their minds, and encouraged them to form an expedition in quest of these treasures with himself as guide.
Epanow's scheme worked and it was not long afterward that he found himself on a ship headed for Martha's Vineyard. Upon arrival, Epanow managed to escape into the vastness of his homeland.
Several years later, he met another explorer on the Island. Epanow's experience with the white man had, of course, made him very distrustful of them and their intentions. An old historian by the name of Gorges, in writing of this second meeting of the Whites and Epanow, said, "This savage was so cunning, that after he had questioned him about me and all he knew belonging unto me, conceived that he (Dermer) had come to betray him; and so conspired with some of his fellows to take the Captain; thereupon they laid hands upon him, but he being a brave, stout gentlemen, drew his swod and managed to free him- self but not without fourteen wounds." (This was written in respect to what was believed an unprovoked attack upon the Captain Thomas Dermer, who visited the Island and met with Epanow, who had bragged of his escape from the English. ) History records very little of Chief Epanow, and it is believed that he died long before the arrival of the first white settlers.
Despite the initial hostile attitudes bred by primary contacts, it is a tribute to the Mayhews and others of the first white settlers of the Island to note that during the years 1675-1676, when the mainland Wampanoags were actively taking part in the various campaings of the bloody King Philip War, the Island Indian remained steadfast in his trust to the white settlers and refused all Philip's entreaties to help him fight the colonists. In fact, the settlers of the Island openly bestowed faith in the aborigines by allowing them to form and join protective ranks to safeguard hostile Indian invasion.
[ 13 ]
Pennacooks.
M
Mohawks.
NIP MUCKS
ZNAMPANDAOS.
MOHEGANS.
PEQUOT'S
ANSE
LAGS
WAMPANDAOS
MOHEGANS.
PEQUOTS
WAMPANDAG ==== ALGONQUIN *****
MED SHOWING ALGONQUIN NATION
Map showing the Indian Federations that formed the Algonquin Indian Nation native to New England.
[ 14 ]
CHAPTER ONE
CULTURE
A. The Home and Village
B. Food
C. Fishing and Hunting
D. Tools
1. Bows
2. Arrowheads
3. Arrow Shafts
4. The Stone Ax and Spear
E. Appearance and Dress
F. Games and Amusements
G. Government and Religion
H. Lore and Legend
Photo Courtesy Howard C. Mandell
This photograph taken of a diorama made by Dr. William S. Fowler and displayed at the Bronson Indian Museum of Attleboro, Mass. shows three typical Wampanoag wetus. In the foreground is the Sachem's (chief) sachimma- commock or Puttackquapuonck (long house).
[ 15 ]
Photo courtesy Howell's Studio
In the same fashion as her ancestors Miss Helen Attaquin, a Wam- panoag descendant and former curator at the Gay Head Museum, depicts a typical Indian Squaw preparing a meal for her family.
[ 16 ]
THE HOME AND VILLAGE
The Wampanoag inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard presented a picture of bountiful and idyllic life to the early explorers. Their villages, called Otans, were fine examples of architectural ingenuity. By a simple extension of nature, they adapted nature's gifts to their own advantage.
Their homes, or Wetus, were constructed of saplings set firmly in the ground and bent together, fastened at the top, and covered with bark or mats. Although some of the wetus were cone-shaped, the majority were rounded "bee-hive" fashion.
The men usually did the initial work of erecting the framework of the wetu. The women would complete the job by covering the framework with strips of bark and mats that were oftentimes quill-embroidered. The doorway was arranged on the lee side, a mat covering the entrance. This could be changed to avert the prevailing winds.
The average wetu was about fifteen feet in diameter. The size of the family, however, usually decided the size of their living quarters.
For the sake of warmth, the floor of the wetu was a few inches lower than the outside level. This was covered with pine needles, cat- tail down, skins, etc. In the center of the floor a fire burned con- stantly for warmth and cooking. A hole in the roof permitted the escape of smoke.
Arranged around the walls were woven baskets that held corn and other edibles, stone and other earthen household utensils, wooden pails, and the low-raised bunks lined with soft boughs and skins.
The Sachem's wetu was always bigger than ordinary, and was pri- marily distinguished by the number of fires it contained, usually more than one. His wetu was called Sachimmacommock.
Each village had a community house or playing arbor called Puttackquapuonch, or long house, which was the most popular spot in the village.
A village of wetus, pitched close together and seldom occupying more than three or four acres, did not present a picture of permanence. Roger Williams, who often visited the Island, called attention to this lack of permanence in the following observation. £ He said, "I once in travell lodged at a home, at which in my returne I hoped to have lodged againe there the next night, but the house was gone in the interim, and I was glad to lodge under a tree.
"The men make the poles or stakes, but the women make and set up take downe, order, and carry the Mats and householdstuffe.
[ 17 ]
"Sometimes they remove to a hunting house in the end of the yeere, and forsake it not untill Snow lie thick, and then will travel home, men, women, and children, throw the snow, thirtie, yea, fiftie or sixtie miles; but their great remove is from their Summer fields to a warme and thicke woodie bottomes, where they winter: They are quicke; in halfe a day, yea, sometimes at few houres warning to be gone and the house up elsewhere; especially, if they have stakes readie pitcht for their .Mats.
"In the middle of Summer, because of the abundance of Fleas, which the dust of the house breeds, they will flie and remove on a sudden from one part of their field to a fresh place: And sometimes having fields a mile or two, or many miles asunder, when the worke of one field is over, they remove house to the other: If death fall in amongst them, they presently remove to a fresh place: If an enemy approach, they remove to a Thicket, or Swampe, unless they have some Fort to remove unto.
"From thick warme vallies, where they winter, they remove a little nearer to their Summer fields; when 'tis warme Spring, then they remove to their fields where they plant Corne."
FOOD
The Wampanoags were agriculturists. Corn, beans, peas, squash and tobacco were easily cultivated in the sandy soil of the island. Ground nuts, acorns, strawberries and cranberries abounded there and was a supplement to their garden harvest.
The women tended the crops with hoes fashioned of clam and quahog shells and shaped stones attached to a length of tree limb. Needless to say, they spent many long and hard hours in the cultivation of their gardens. The growing of corn was their major industry.
Each family tended its own plot which usually consisted of three or four acres. Gardens were fertilized by the well-known method of putting a herring in each seed hill. The seed were well covered to prevent the birds from robbing them. As an added precaution watch houses were always set up in the center of the fields. Children were posted in these houses to frighten away marauders. It is curious, however, that they would not kill the crow as they believed that their great Manitoo (god) of the southwest winds sent the crow to them carrying the first ear of seed corn. However, some families did use a trained hawk to scare the black birds away. Incidentally, aside from hawks, the dog was the Indian's only domesticated pet.
Their diet did not consist wholly of the fruits of cultivation and gathering for they were equally skillful in hunting and fishing. They were blessed with an abundance of edibles of marine life such as lobsters, crabs, oysters, clams, quahogs, whale, swordfish, bass, and many other species of salt and fresh water fish.
Shellfish were often eaten raw, but usually they were cooked over
[ 18 ]
hot stones and seaweed with other edibles. It was this practice that the white man copied and popularized as the "clambake. "
The main difference in their preparation of food, when compared to that of the mainland tribes' method of boiling, was the practice of roasting.
The women prepared the food in a variety of ways without regard for the appearance of the finished product. The bones and entrails of fish and smaller game were seldom removed before roasting. Salt was unknown to them. The liquor of the clam and the quahog was served as a salt substitute.
Corn was the staple of the Wampanoag. They ate it in all stages of growth, from tender ripe to dried kernel. Their corncakes were often flavored with whatever fruits were in season. The addition of wild strawberries smashed and ground into the meal was always a tasty favorite.
"Their Nokehick," Roger Williams said, "is Parch'd meal, which is a readie very wholesome food, which they eate with little water, hot or cold; I have travelled with neere 200 of them at once, through the woods, every man carrying a little basket of this at his back, and sometimes in a hollow LeatherGirdle, (called Petunk), about his middle sufficient for a man three of foure daies.
"With this readie provision, and their Bow and Arrowes, are they ready for War, and Travell at an hour's warning. With a spoonful of this meale and a Spoonful of Water from the Brooke, have I made a good dinner and supper."
This Nokehick was called "bread for the journey" which was later corrupted by the English into "Journey Bread, " and later "Johnny Bread, " and finally through years of usage it is now called "Johnny Cake."
FISHING AND HUNTING
Needless to say, the early Wampanoags were skilled fishermen. The sandy shores of the island abounded in small inlets where the tide poured in and out. These inlets afforded excellent opportunity for the inhabitants to use to best advantage their methods of snaring and spearing fish.
It was not unusual for them to lie naked at night on the damp sand: of the shore. Frequently throughout the night they would awake to Search their nets and traps in the cold water.
Eels were caught in abundance by the ingenuous method of treading the mud of the salt marshes with their bare feet and grabbing the eels as they squirmed underfoot. Also, it was not uncommon to see them picking up shellfish at low tide.
An early record gives the following description. "Ashop, which is
[ 19 ]
1
Courtesy New Bedford Standard-Times
An unidentified Martha's Vineyard Indian of the late 19th century is pictured here in this old photograph fishing in almost the same way as did his ancestors.
From left to right, an Island Indian's eel pot; a large mortar and pestle and a canoe or dugout paddle.
Photo by author, Courtesy of the Dukes County Historical Society
{ 20 }
their name for the nets, which they will set thwart some little River or Cove wherein they kil Basses (at the fall of the water) with their arrows, or sharp sticks, expecially if headed with iron gotten from the English, etc .. =
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