USA > Massachusetts > Bristol County > New Bedford > History of New Bedford and its vicinity, 1620-1892 > Part 15
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During this year (1794) a public pound and workhouse were erected. A bounty of thirty- three shillings was offered by the town to soldiers for frontier service. The street over the milldam in Fairhaven was opened in 1795. Record is made that at this time Bedford village con- tained 454 houses and 1,313 inhabitants. In 1796 William. Rotch deeded the lot of land, on the northwest corner of Purchase and William streets, to the new Congregational society.
Either . Jeaurais
151
OBSERVATION OF ANNIVERSARIES.
The twentieth anniversary of American Independence was this year celebrated by the town of Bedford with great rejoicings; and it is re- corded that the military honors of the day were performed by the artil- lery under command of Captain Ayers. The festivities included an instructive oration by Rev. Samuel West, D.D., and a public dinner at which toasts and speeches were in order, accompanied by the discharge of cannon. In 1797 the anniversary was celebrated with the usual parade, the artillery company under Captain Henshaw, performing the military exercises of the day. The oration was delivered by Mr. Jireh Willis " before a large and respectable audience." Patriotic toasts and speeches were offered, and every sentiment expressed evinced that "New Bedford would not be the last to espouse the cause of our country against any encroachments upon her independence, whether from En- .glish or French. To speak in fact, they were Columbians." 1
Washington's birthday, February 22, 1799, was commemorated with great rejoicings; and "the celebration of the American Cincinnatus's birth was accompanied with the Federal discharge of artillery. Federal toasts and Federal harmony ran through the scene, and no niisfortune beclouded the general mirth."
Thursday, January 6, 1800, was set apart as a day of public mourn- ing in New Bedford, in memory of General Washington, who died at his country seat in Virginia, December 14, 1799. The news reached the town via New York, on December 22, and a handbill issued by the Courier announced the fact and gave every particular of the event that had been received up to that date. On the day of the ceremonies, a procession was formed under the direction of Colonels Pope, Kemp- ton, Claghorn, and Captain Bryant. It consisted of the artillery and militia companies, a body of Free Masons,2 orator, clergy, choir of singers, civil officers, and the school children each with a black ribbon on the left arm. While the procession moved, the bells tolled and minute guns were discharged. The funeral oration was delivered by Rev. John Briggs, of Tiverton. The flags on vessels were set at half- mast during the day.
1 Columbian Courier.
2 Probably the Washington Remembrance Lodge, F. and A. M., which was in existence about this time.
152
HISTORY OF NEW BEDFORD.
The New Bedford Academy, established for the education of both sexes, was opened May, 1, 1800, under the care of Galen Hicks and Miss Sally Cady. Noah Stoddard and Robert Bennett were the com- mittee on behalf of the proprietors. In 1796 the New Bedford and Fairhaven bridge was built. The rates of toll in 1800 were four cents for each foot passenger, twelve cents for each person and horse, twenty- five cents for each chaise or sulky, eighteen cents for each sleigh drawn by one horse, and six cents for each additional horse; thirty-six cents for each coach, phaeton, curricle, or four-wheel carriage for passengers, twenty-five cents for each cart, wagon, sled, or other carriage of burthen, drawn by two beasts ; and for the privilege of rolling a wheelbarrow or hand-cart over the bridge, six cents were charged ; for the same money, a dozen sheep, swine, cattle or horses, in droves with one driver, could cross this private highway.
On the 4th of July, 1801, a unique military display was made in Fairhaven by the Democrats. It was a reproduction of the assault and defense of Bunker Hill. A broad field with a high hill, in front of Joshua L. Pope's house, was selected as the center of operations, and weeks before the event the people were, busy with the preparations. The hill was prepared with masked ramparts, built of plank, behind which the Yankee forces were to resist the attacks of the British. It is recorded that Capt. Noah Stoddard of privateering fame, and an en- thusiastic Democrat, loaned his fine horse to the representatives of the British crown for the occasion. The fact occasioned much amusement to the populace, and Mr. Stoddard was the recipient of good-natured chaffing, when his fiery charger appeared on the scene with the attack- ing party. The British army, not in red coats, but in the homespun of Yankee yeomanry, filed in through the wall in front of Mr. Pope's house. The force on the hill gathered noiselessly by a route in the rear. It was afternoon when, after various marches and counter- marches, the attack began, and attack and repulse followed repeatedly, the dead and wounded, in 'large numbers, lying scattered on the field. At last the hill was stormed with the bayonet and defended with clubbed muskets, until at last the flags of the Pine Tree of Massachusetts re- treated down the hill to the frog pond, and the victors took possession. The whole affair was well done, the field and its surroundings resembled
153
EVENTS OF INTEREST.
very well the original, and the hill was ever afterwards called Bunker Hill.
During the months of September and October, 1801, a fatal fever prevailed through the town. It excited much alarm, and caused the people to stay closely in their homes. The authorities were alive to the gravity of the situation, and exercised their influence to control the malignant disease. There were eleven deaths in three weeks ending October 1st, most of them from the fever.
The Bedford Bank was organized under an act of incorporation, April 2, 1803, by Thomas Hazard, jr., Edward Pope, and Seth Russel, jr., stockholders. (See later chapter.) The first legal meeting of the Bed- ford Aqueduct Association, Charles Russell, clerk, was held March 17, 1804. On September 26 of the same year, Joseph Willard, D.D., (LL.D.), president of Harvard University, died at the house of Edward Pope, esq. Belleville road was opened during this year.
An interesting story 1 was related by Capt. John Aikin, for many years an experienced pilot in our harbor, who died in 1885 at the ad- vanced age of ninety- seven years. It touches one of the greatest of naval contests, the battle of Trafalgar, fought October 21, 1805, be- tween the English fleet and the combined fleets of France and Spain.
"I was born in the town of Dartmouth in the year 1788, and was seventeen years old when I sailed in the ship Ann Ale.cander, commanded by Capt. Loum Snow. The ship sailed from New Bedford (her port of departure was New York) for Leghorn, with a cargo of general merchandise consisting of flour, tobacco, salt fish, and apples, Eight- een days out, we fell in with the English fleet off Cape Trafalgar. The different ships were repairing damages which had occurred during the battle with the combined French and Spanish fleets only a few days previous. We had on our deck a quantity of lumber which had been taken on board just before the departure from New York, and was, I believe, the personal property of Capt. Snow. An English officer boarded us and informed our captain that Lord Nelson had been shot through the shoulder and spine, and had died on board the Victory a few hours after the battle was over : that Lord Collingwood was the next senior officer in command. We could readily see the effect of the enemy's fire upon the English ships. The men were on the outside of the different men-of-war, repairing the damages which had been done. The English officer returned to the Victory, Lord Collingwood's flagship, and soon afterward came back with a request that we let him have our lumber, a quantity of flour, and some of the apples. Our captain agreed, and soon after the boats from the ships came alongside and were furnished with these different articles. The captain was paid for these goods
1 Related by Captain Aikin to Surgeon George F. Winslow, U. S. N.
20
I54
HISTORY OF NEW BEDFORD.
in English gold by the fleet paymaster, who came on board and settled the accounts. We squared away for the Straits of Gibraltar and on the following day came up with the new 74-gun frigate United States which had recently arrived on this station. They lowered a boat and came alongside. We gave them the news and sent the commander two barrels of apples."
The Ann Alexander will live in New Bedford history as the vessel which was afterwards destroyed by an infuriated whale while that ship was on a voyage in the Pacific Ocean, August 20, 1851.
The public spirit and patriotism of the town at this period is revealed in the demonstrations made on Washington's birthday in 1807, when the vessels in the harbor and the flagstaffs about the town were deco- rated in honor of the event, and a public parade of the artillery com- pany, Capt. John Coggeshall, was made.
The year 1808 seems to have been a patriotic one, for July 4 was notably observed. A grand procession was formed at Nelson's Hotel (located where now stands Ricketson's block), and under the escort of the artillery company, Capt. Coggeshall, and the infantry company, Capt. Samuel Bonney, marched through the principal streets of the town. A grand banquet was served at the hotel for 200 people, and speeches and toasts followed.
A similar celebration was observed in 1809, and a military display was made under the direction of Col. Benjamin Lincoln. The artillery company was under the command of Capt. John Coggeshall, and the infantry under Capt. Thomas Barstow. Fireworks were set off and lan- terns displayed.
Through the brief notices of these public events is traced the contin- ued existence of military organizations in the town.
In the 4th of July parade of 1810 the artillery company was under command of Capt. Samuel Stall, and the militia company in charge of Lieut. John Grey. The following, a complete roster of this company, dated January 25, 1810, was obtained through S. D. Horton, of Dor- chester, a son of Sergeant Enoch Horton.
MUSTER ROLL OF CAPT. THOMAS BARSTOW'S COMPANY OF FOOT, JANUARY 27, 1810.
Officers .-- Captam, Thomas Barstow; lieutenant, Job Grey ; sergeants and musicians, Enoch Horton, Robert Weaver, Alanson Caswell.
Rank and File .- George Bliss, Stephen Wing, Zephaniah Winslow, Benjamin War- ren, Charles Forbes, Jethro Hillman, William Dalton, Benjamin Simmons, Thomas
155
SELECTMEN, 1682-1811.
Allen, John S. Himes, Samuel Bliss, Jeduthan Cadwell, Jonathan Wut 2d, John Free- man, Zebedee Booth, Timothy Perry, Charles Allen, Nathaniel Perry, Charles Covell, Benjamin Kempton, John Heffards, Richard Hill, Samuel C. Tohey, David Howland, William Blackmer, Uriah Head, Elisha Knapp, Charles - -- , William B. Ellis (ap- pointed quartermaster), John Fuller, Jonathan Howland, jr .. Samuel Taber, John Tay- lor, William Cranston, Nathan Parker, Stephen West, Oliver Crocker. Elijah Wilbour. Martin Orcut, David Wilcox, Stephen Tripp, Timothy Mosher, Richard Randall, Na- than Perry, William C. Nye, Mathew Swain, jr., Stephen Potter, Joseph Dunbar, Thomas Hammond, Jonathan Fuller, David Green, John Sisson, Enoch Butts, Ezra Hathaway, Henry Place, Josiah L. Bliss, Edward Taber (at B. Hills), (one name illegi- ble), Simeon Nash, Nye Holmes, Francis Allen, Ralph Cadwell, David Stowell, Allen Sherman, John Clapp, James Heffards, Thurston Sherman, Nash Decost, Perry Jen- nings, Francis Smith, Pardon Pierce, William W. Kempton, Thomas Burrill, Smith Simmons, Soloman Cadwell, Philip White, Latham Cross, Benj. Taber (cooper), David Sawdy, James Hathaway, Stephen Howland, William Nash, William Tuckerman, Ben- jamin Hillman, Charles Gilbert, Gilbert Brooks, George Simmons, John Evans, Clem- ant Covill.
For the sake of convenient reference, there is presented here a list of the selectmen of Dartmouth and New Bedford, from 1682 to 1811. The original spelling of the records is preserved :
1682, John Rusel, Arthur Hathaway, John Cooke. 1683, Jolm Rusel. Arthur Hath- away, John Cooke. 1684, John Rusel, Arthur Hathaway, John Cooke. 1685, Seth Pope, Jonathan Russell, Thomas Taber. 1686, Joseph Tripp, Seth Pope, Jonathan De- lino. 1687, Joseph Tripp, Seth Pope, Jonathan Delino. 1688, Abraham Tucker, James Tripp. 1689, Seth Pope, Jonathan Delino, James Sison. 1692, Thomas Taber, Joseph Tripp, Thomas Brigs. 1693, Thomas Taber, John Akin, George Cadman. 1694, Thomas Taber, Abraham Tucker, George Cadman. 1695, Jonathan Delino, Recompense Kirby. William Soal. 1696, Jonathan Delino, Abraham Tucker, George Cadman. 1697, George Soul, Isaac Pope, Benjamin Howland. 1698, George Cadman, John Tucker, Jonathan Dilinay. 1699, Thomas Taber, Nathaniel Howland, Joseph Tripp. 1700, Eliezer Smith, Thomas Hadaway, Thomas Rogers. 1701-2, Joseph Tripp, William Soul. James Sam-
son. 1701-2, Jonathan Delano, John Tucker, Phillip Taber. 1704-5, William Spooner, Thos. Getchel, Joseph Hix. 1706, Joseph Tripp, Dilliverance Smith. 1708, Joseph Tripp, Deliverance Smith, Thomas Taber, jr. 1709, Joseph Tripp, Deliverance Smith, Thomas Taber, jr. 1710, Jonathan Delano, Joseph Tripp, John Aken. 1711, Thomas Taber, James Tripp, Henry Tucker. 1711-12, John Russell, John Taber John Tripp. 1713, John Tripp, John Taber, Gersham Smith. 1714, John Tripp, John Taber, Gersham Smith. 1716, Phillip Taber, John Akin, John Taber. 1717, De- liverance Smith, Thomas Taber, jr., George Lawton. 1717, Jonathan Deleno, Nathan- iel Soule, John Tripp. 1719, John Akin, Phillip Taber, Thomas Taher, jr. 1720. John Akin, Phillip Taber, Thomas Taber, jr. 172], John Akin, Phillip Taber, Thomas Taber. jr. 1722, John Akin, Phillip Taber, Thomas Taber, jr. 1723, John Akin, Berriah God- dard, Jacob Taber. 1725, John Akin, Phillip Taber, Jacob Taber. 1726, John Akın,
156
HISTORY OF NEW BEDFORD.
Phillip Taber, Jacob Taber. 1727, Beriah Goddard, Isaac Howland, Jacob Taber. 1728, Beriah Goddard, Henry Howland, Stephen West, jr. 1729, Beriah Goddard, Henry Howland, Stephen West, jr. 1730, Jacob Taber, Timothy Shearman, Isaac Wood. (These refused to serve). 1730, John Tripp, Beriah Goddard, James How- land, Stephan West, jr. 1731, James Howland Stephan West, jr., John Tripp. 1732, Stephen West, jr., James Howland, John Tripp. 1733, John Tripp, James Howland, Benjamin Allen. 1734, Jacob Taber, John Tripp, John Akin. 1735, John Tripp, Jo- seph Tucker, Benjamin Allen. 173G, Benjamin Allen, Joseph Tucker, Isaac Wood. 1737, John Tripp, Holden Slocum, Benjamin Allen. 1737-8, Nathaniel Soul, Holder Slocum, Benjamin Allen. 1739, Benjamin Allen, Holden Slocum, Nathaniel Soul. 1740, Capt. Samuel Willis, James Allen, Jonathan Sisson. 1741, John Tripp, Humphry Smith. Stephen West. 1742, John Tripp, Humphry Smith, Stephen West, jr. 1743, Jedediah Wood, Jonathan Taber, Humphry Smith. 1744, Moses Mendal, Humphry Smith, James Tripp. 1745, Jedediah Wood, Humphry Smith, Moses Mendall. 1746, Humpliry Smith. Jedediah Wood, Jonathan Taber. 1747, Humphry Smith, John Soul, Jonathan Taher. 1748, Capt. Lemnel Pope, Humphry Smith, Jedediah Wood. 1748-9, John Wing, Jedediah Wood, Richard Peirce. 1748-9, Peleg Hudlestone cho- sen in place of Jedediah Wood, who refused to serve. 1750, Humphry Smith, Jedediah Wood, Thomas Hathaway. 1751, Thomas Hathaway, Benjamin Akin, Jonathan Sole. 1751, John Shepherd and Jirah Swift were chosen in place of Thomas Hathaway and Benjamin Akin, who refused to serve. Jedediah Wood was chosen in place of Jona- than Sole. 1752, Capt. Nathaniel Sole, Pelig Smith, Jirah Swift. 1753, Jethro Delano, Jirah Swift, Capt. Nathaniel Sowle. James Allen chosen in place of Jethro Delano, who refused to serve. Peleg Smith was chosen in place of James Allen, refused to serve. 1754, Richard Cornal, William Hart, Thomas Hathaway. 1755, Jireh Swift, John Soule, Benjamin Akin. 1757, Jireh Swift, John Soule, Benjamin Akin. 1757, Jethro Hathaway, Christopher Cadman, Holder Slocum. 1758, Humphry Smith, Jireh Swift, Christopher Cadman. 1759, Humphry Smith, Christopher Cadman, Walter .Spooner. 1760, Humphry Smith, Christopher Cadman, Walter Spooner. 1761, Humphry Smith, Walter Spooner, Ezekell Cornell. 1762, Humphry Smith, Walter Spooner, Ezekell Cornell. 1763, Humphry Smith, Walter Spooner, Ezekell Cornell. 1764, Humphrey Smith, Walter Spooner, Ezekell Cornell. 1765, Humphry Smith, Walter Spooner, Daniel Wood. 1766, Walter Spooner, Daniel Wood, Giles Slocum. 1767, Walter Spooner, Daniel Wood, Giles Slocum. 1768, Walter Spooner, Daniel Wood, Giles Slocum. 1769, Walter Spooner, Daniel Wood, Giles Slocum. 1770, Walter Spooner, Giles Slocum, William Davis. 1771, Walter Spooner, Giles Slocum, William Davis. 1772, William Davis, John Wady, Seth Russell. Giles Slocum Chosen in pl. of John Wady. 1773, Jabez Barker, jr., William Davis, William Tallman. 1774, Jabez Bar- ker, jr., William Davis, William Tallman. 1775, Jabez Barker, jr., William Davis, Will- iam Tallman. 1776, Jabez Barker, jr., William Davis, William Tallman. 1777, Jabez Barker, jr., William Davis, William Tallman. 1778, Aulden Spooner, Thomas Kemp- ton, Benjamin Russell, jr., Job Almy. 1779, William Davis, Richard Kerby, Benja. Russell, jr., Maletiah Hathaway, Thomas Kempton, Aulden Spooner, Benjamin Church. 1780, Richard Kerby, Benja. Russell, Alden Spooner, William Davis, Thomas Kemp-
NEW BEDFORD IN 1810.
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HISTORY OF NEW BEDFORD.
ton, Melatiah Hathaway. 1781, Benjamin Russell, Pardon Cook, William Davis. 1782, Edward Pope, Jabez Barker, Stephen Peckcom. 1783, Ebenezer Willis, Stephen Peck- com, Jabez Barker. 1784, Ebenezer Willis, Stephen Peckcom, Jabez Barker. 1785, Ebenezer Willis, Stephen Peckcom, Jabez Barker. 1786, Ebenezer Willis, Henry Smith, William Almy. 1787, John West, Isaac Pope, William Tallman. 1788, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Stephan Hathaway. 1789, Walter Spooner, William Tall- man, Stephen Hathaway. 1790, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Stephen Hathaway. 179I, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Stephen Hathaway. 1792, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Stephen Hathaway. 1793, William Tallman, Ebenezer Keen, Bar- tholomew Aikin. 1794, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Isaac Shearman. 1795, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Isaac Shearman. 1796, Walter Spooner, William Tallman, Isaac Shearman. 1797, Alden Spooner, William Tallman, Isaac Shearman. 1798, Alden Spooner, William Tallman, Joseph Bennett. 1799, Alden Spooner, Will- iam Tallman, Joseph Bennett. 1800, William Tallman, Alden Spooner, Killey Eldredge. 180I, William Tallman, Alden Spooner, Kelley Eldredge. 1802, Alden Spooner, Killey Eldredge, Simpson Hart. 1803, Alden Spooner, Cornelius Grinnell, Joseph Bennet. 1804, Roger Haskell, Bartholomew Aikin, James Taber. 1805, Bartholomew Aikin, James Taber, Silas Kempton. 1806, James Taber, Roger Haskell, Thomas Nye, jr. 1807, Alden Spooner, Roger Haskell, Thomas Nye, jr. 1808, Alden Spooner, Roger Haskell, Thomas Nye, jr. 1809, Alden Spooner, Roger Haskell, Thomas Nye, jr. 1810, Alden Spooner, Roger Haskell, Killey Eldredge. 1811, Alden Spooner, Roger Haskell, Joseph Church.
CHAPTER XI.
THE WAR OF 1812.
England's Disregard of the Rights of the United States - Impressment of Ameri- can Seamen - The Embargo Act and its Effects - Opposition to it in New England - Political Strife between Bedford and Fairhaven - Declaration of War - Its Effect upon New Bedford-Measures for Defence -The Constitution and Lieutenant Parker - Two Useless Gunboats - The British Brig Nimrod - The " Wagon Brigade."
E 'VENTS were happening during the early years of the century that had an important bearing on the final issues that resulted in the declaration of war with England. Many of the stipulations of the treaty of 1783 had been disregarded. The military posts on the front- ier that were to be abandoned were still in possession of the English,
159
PORTENTS OF WAR.
and had become centers of assistance to the Indians in their attacks upon the American settlements. It was difficult for England to recog- nize the sovereign rights of the new nation that had once been subject to the British crown. On the land these rights were ignored, often to the humiliation of the representatives of the United States, but it was on the sea where the most flagrant outrages were committed. The conflict raging between England and France furnished opportunities for the development of these wrongs. In 1806 the former nation declared the Continental coast under a strict blockade. In a few months Napo- leon issued a decree, placing the entire British coast in a similar condi- tion. These decrees (which practically forbade neutral nations from entering their ports) were of no serious importance to the nations di- rectly involved, but they bore heavily upon the floating commerce of the United States, especially that of New England, where the maritime interests were dependent upon the markets of the Old World. Many vessels and cargoes were confiscated by the ships of war of both na- tions, and the ocean traffic of the new republic was seriously crippled.
These misfortunes were increased by the claim of right of search by the English government. British cruisers waylaid American vessels, and American sailors were forced into their naval service. The press- ing need of men for the thousand vessels that composed the English navy at this time made every sailor without protection papers a sure victim, and even these often failed to secure his sovereign rights. It was stated by Mr. Lyman, United States consul at London, that in 1811 there were 14,000 Americans serving under compulsion in the British navy.
In 1807 the United States government issued a proclamation, placing an embargo on shipping in American ports, thus forbidding all exports from the country. The evident purpose of this manifesto was to save men and cargoes from capture. The Federal party vigorously opposed this action, and New England was especially violent in opposition to this unwise move, for she was far more seriously affected by it than other sections of the country. Her spacious harbors had become cen- ters for a prosperous traffic and her forests furnished the finest lumber in the world, which found a ready market across the ocean. The ports of Salem, Newburyport, and New Bedford sent out large fleets of ves-
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HISTORY OF NEW BEDFORD.
sels in the whale fishery, and here we find the true reason for the fierce opposition of New England in general, and New Bedford in particular, to the declaration of war in 1812. The maritime interests of the Acushnet River and the capital invested were largely centered in Bed- ford village, which was therefore more sensitive to the anticipated ca- lamities of war than Fairhaven, whose attention was given to agricul- tural pursuits. The business of the whole New England coast was blighted by the unwise action of the government, unwise, that is to say, in the eyes of the Federal party of the country.
The following significant figures of the presidential election in 1812, when the peace majority was 24,000 in a total vote of 74,000, show the state of public opinion in Massachusetts. New Bedford cast 399 votes for Clinton, the presidential candidate of the Federal, or peace party, and thirteen for Madison, who was re-elected by the Republican, or war party. Dartmouth cast 341 votes for Clinton and twenty-three for Madison, and Fairhaven 157 for Clinton and 201 for Madison. The act " Declaring war with England " was passed by Congress with ninety- eight yeas and sixty-two nays, a plurality of only thirty-six votes. In 1813 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut refused to give up the command of their militia to United States officers.
It is difficult to understand why the reasons urged for war with Eng- land did not apply with equal force to France, for she made wanton depredations upon our commerce and manifested an equal disregard of the rights of the American nation. It is evident, however, that the United States government knew its inability to cope with both powers, and so joined cause with France against England, hoping by force of ,arms over the one, and by fraternal interest with the other, to secure a lasting recognition of the rights of an independent nation-and it suc- ceeded.
In 1809 Congress repealed the Embargo act and substituted a rule of non-intercourse with England and France until they should remove the restrictions upon trade. This was done by France in 1810, but was not accomplished by the English government till June 22, and before the news had been received of the declaration of war on June 18, 1812. It did not modify the action of the United States government, how- ever, for other existing grievances seemed to justify the pursuance of the war policy.
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POLITICAL DIFFERENCES.
Bedford village at this time was strongly allied to the Federal party, of which Washington and Adams were exponents, while Fairhaven was equally pronounced in its loyalty to the Republican, or what would be termed to-day the Democratic party, whose great leaders were Jefferson and Madison. The Federal party was opposed to the war, and so was Bedford village. The Republican party was in favor of the war, and so was Fairhaven. The result of this marked division of opinion upon the great issues of the period made lively times at town meetings. Record and tradition both show that these gatherings were character- ized by great vigor, and oftentimes with much rancor. The modern town meeting can not claim originality in this direction.
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