USA > Massachusetts > Worcester County > Worcester > Town annual reports of the several departments for the fiscal year ending December 31, 1885 > Part 8
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CIRCULAR.
FREE EVENING DRAWING SCHOOLS.
The attendance in these classes has not been as punctual as it ought, and the committee have decided to require a deposit of one dollar from each pupil as a guarantee of promptness; it will be refunded at the close of the term to those whose attendance has been satisfactory.
The following classes, open to both sexes, are proposed. Each class will be formed in case twenty applicants appear : -
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION.
CLASS NO. 1.
ADVANCED CLASS IN FREE-HAND DRAWING.
Drawing from the Antique and from Life; an advance course in Perspec- tive; Historical Ornament, and Applied Design.
CLASS NO. 2.
A COURSE IN FREE-HAND DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS.
Model and Object Drawing; Light and Shade; Historical Ornament ; Theo- retical Design and Elementary Perspective.
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CLASS NO. 3.
BEGINNERS' COURSE IN INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING FOR CARPENTERS AND WOOD-WORKERS.
The instruction will include the use of instruments, the elements of plain geometry, the principles of plain projection, intersection of surfaces, the principles and processes involved in making plans, elevations and sections.
After elementary principles are established the practice of this class will be upon Architectural drawing.
CLASS NO. 4.
BEGINNERS' CLASS IN INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING, FOR PATTERN-MAKERS AND MACHINISTS.
After elementary principles similar to No. 3 are established, the practice of this class will be upon Machinery drawing.
CLASS NO. 5.
ADVANCED COURSE IN INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING FOR CARPENTERS AND WOOD-WORKERS.
This class will make details, working drawings, scale drawings and eleva- tions of a modern dwelling-house, store front or something similar. Atten- tion will be given to coloring, lettering and finishing the drawings. Instruc- tion will be given from the blackboard, and from practical working drawings used in the construction of buildings already put up or in process of construc- tion.
Applicants for admission to this class must show a knowledge of drawing equivalent to that obtained by a course in Class 3.
CLASS NO. 6.
ADVANCED COURSE IN INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING, FOR PATTERN-MAKERS AND MACHINISTS.
The instruction in this class will include not only advanced instruction in drawing but elementary principles of mechanic and machine designs, with practical rules for construction. Members of this class will make general and detail working drawings, to proper scale, from actual working machines and drawings, with special reference to coloring, lettering and artistic finish.
Applicants for admission to this class must show a knowledge of drawing equivalent to that obtained by a course in Class 4.
These classes will meet at the Drawing-School Rooms on Walnut street. Each member will need a drawing board 20 in. by 25 in.
There will be two lessons a week for each class-Monday and Thursday, or Tuesday and Friday.
The course for each class consists of thirty lessons.
Residents of Worcester, over fifteen years of age, except those attending school, may enter these classes.
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CITY DOCUMENT .- No. 40.
No one can honorably join a class unless he intends to devote the time re- quired-two evenings a week-for the full course.
All applicants will meet for organization, Monday, November 2, at 7.30 o'clock, in the Drawing-School Room, Walnut street.
For the Committee on Drawing,
A. P. MARBLE,
Supt. of Schools.
Worcester, October 27, 1885.
APPLICATION.
NAME.
Age . Class you wish to join, No.
Occupation
RESIDENCE.
PLACE OF BUSINESS. . Street. No
No .
. Street. How many terms (about 24 lessons each) have you received instruction in drawing ?
Terms. Will you engage to devote the time necessary to complete the course for the class you propose to join, unless prevented by unforeseen necessity ?
ADMISSION.
On the conditions named opposite,
Is admitted to Class No
He has made the deposit of $1.00.
Supt. of Schools.
Worcester, November, 1885.
In several cities of the Commonwealth there have been formed classes in modeling in clay. This branch of study is closely allied to drawing, and there has been some demand for a class in this city. It will be wise to organize one as soon as there is a class large enough, who desire it.
DRAWING
In the regular course in the public schools from lowest to highest, has made steady and very commendable progress for the
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last ten years. The work has been reduced to an admirable sys- tem by our accomplished and pains-taking special teacher ; and the progress of the pupils has been marked.
As showing something about the method of instruction the following will be of interest. It has appeared in one of the educational journals : -
METHODS IN TEACHING DRAWING.
BY WALTER S. PERRY, WORCESTER, MASS.
Some people think that in teaching drawing to children, we have only the eye and the hand to educate; that, if the child learns to copy quite accurately a diagram set before him, he has achieved success ; and that we have therefore simply to put into his hands a book filled with all sorts of abstract figures for him to imitate, in order to fulfil all that is essential in teaching drawing.
We deal, handle, and are surrounded by forms, - forms which may be classified in general, as cylindrical, conical, rectangular, etc. But few there are who know how to properly represent the facts of these forms, even if the eye is able to perceive them, or know how to represent their appearance, or have the faintest idea what principles govern their decoration.
Children realize form by actual contact with the object itself, and not alone by simply copying a drawing of that object. The imagination cannot be cultivated till the mind has first been edu- cated to perceive form in the concrete. Eye and hand education without brain education is superficial in the extreme. If an hour and a half each week is to be devoted to the study of drawing, great care should be exercised in presenting those methods which will be the most educational, and which will train the higher faculties of the child conjointly with the eye and the hand.
FACTS OF FORM.
The top view of a cylinder is a circle ; made alone it is mean- ingless, but when made a little above the front view of the cylin- der, which is an oblong, the drawing, with the various dimensions marked upon it, becomes an intelligible language to a complete understanding of the object. It represents all the facts of the form of the cylinder and is a working-drawing, inasmuch as a workman might construct the object from the drawing alone. If now the pupil finds the size of an oblong which will reach around the cylinder, covering its entire curved surface, and draws in con-
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nection with this oblong two circles for the ends, he has a pattern of the cylinder and is enabled to make an object for himself out of paper.
APPEARANCE OF FORM.
Having learned to see and to express the facts of a cylinder and other common objects, and having drawn the pattern and made a cylinder which he can handle and study, the pupil is in condition to draw the appearance of the cylinder. He learns to see that its appearance and facts are not the same, that it does not appear the same from all points of view, - that when placed a little below the eye, the top appears as an ellipse, and that this ellipse appears wider or narrower as the object is changed in posi- tion. In a similar manner he learns to see and to draw the facts and the appearance of all various geometric solids.
DESIGN.
In design the pupil must first become acquainted with a good form or unit, as for instance a kite-shaped figure of straight lines. He must then learn how this form may be easily modified by substituting curved lines for the straight, either in part or whole ; how these forms may be arranged for designs and the principles which govern their arrangement. He learns further that this same form may undergo other modifications by division ; that is, the upper part may be divided, as for illustration, into three divisions, a central form and one branching from either side. These same forms may again be further modified by sepa- rating slightly the parts so that they no longer branch out of each other, but exist as three units side by side, and must, in this case, be fastened together by a horizontal band in the narrowest part. Lastly, plant-form may be substituted for these geometric forms. If the design is to be made from a plant, the leaves of which branch from a main stem, the leaves inust so branch in the con- ventionalized unit. If a plant is used, the leaves of which have long individual stems, these stems in the conventional unit must be fastened together in the same manner as the parts of the geo- metric unit, i. e., by a horizontal band. So by using the first simple unit as a basis for the form of each succeeding unit, the pupil is able to trace all the various modifications a unit may un- dergo in the final substitution of plant-form.
Drawing, then, properly taught teaches the pupils to perceive and to express the facts of form ; to draw the patterns ; to make the objects themselves when practicable ; to draw the appear- ance of the objects in various positions ; and lastly to decorate surfaces according to the best principles of design.
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EXECUTION.
After the study of form from the object there comes the work in the book; but this work is often poorly done because of a lack of knowledge on the part of the teacher, of the many details of execution so essential to class work. Much poor work comes from the cramped manner in which pupils grasp their pencils. Position of the fingers can be easily taught if divided into casy stages. Children cannot think of several things at one time. We unconsciously learn to place the fingers correctly at once, but to the child it is a task. Laying aside the pencils, the chil- dren should (a) learn to straighten the four fingers and practise touching the thumb to the end of the first finger without allow- ing it to slip off the second finger. (b) The first finger should be moved backward from the second finger a distance equal to about the thickness of the pencil and without allowing the thumb to follow it, thus forming what may be called a shelf for the pencil to rest upon. (c) Keeping the thumb and fingers of the right hand in the positions just learned, the pencil, by means of the left hand, should be placed on the so-called shelf in the right hand between the thumb and first finger. (d) The third and fourth fingers should be rounded-in somewhat underneath the hand, on the nails of which the hand will slide while drawing. These positions should be practised one at a time till the child finally learns to take them unconsciously every time he uses his pencil.
FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT.
Children must acquire a free and easy movement of the hand. This may be done by sliding the hand steadily and evenly sev- eral inches in imitation of various lines, circles, etc., without at first drawing lines. Each line of a figure should also be prac- tised on the printed copy by moving the hand and pencil freely over the line in imitation of it, till the hand has acquired the movement. All lines, straight and curved, should be drawn with one movement ; and that, of the arm from the shoulder, without bending the wrist. It is a great mistake and waste of time to allow children to piece their lines,-it results finally in slow work and a loss of freedom in execution. When drawing vertical lines, pupils should sit directly in front of each line and draw downward with the pencil held at right angles with the line, but inclined toward the paper. Circles and ellipses should be practised by passing the pencil very near the paper in imita- tion of the whole form till the hand has acquired a free move- ment, and then the circle or ellipse should be drawn at one
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sweep of the pencil. When drawn as in the case of all other lines, these curves should first be corrected with the pencil before any erasing is done. It is wonderful what perfect circles chil- dren can draw in this free way. No one thing will pay better for the accomplishment of good work than much practise in this free movement of the hand ; and in securing good results, very much depends upon the methods of presenting many seemingly small matters.
In conclusion it may be said of drawing that perception of form, brought about through proper presentation of the object on the part of the teacher, leading the pupils to a systematic method of study and to an intelligible delineation upon paper of one surface of objects possessing many surfaces, makes drawing a language,-a language the value of which cannot be questioned, -the only language common to all nations and made use of in all arts, trades and manufactures.
Music has been taught by a special teacher in the schools of this city for more than twenty years. From a report on this subject for the year 1865 :-
" This study, though not occupying fully the position to which it is entitled in our schools, has made itself interesting and useful. The rudiments of music are dry indeed, and since we pursue the subject as a science, and begin at the very foundation and at first principles, it requires all the knowledge and tact and invention of a good teacher to interest and to keep interested, young people in such a study. We are not satisfied, we are even unwilling, that our scholars be merely taught tunes-that a teacher give his time to singing a few melodies, that the scholars shall learn to sing by rote after him-but we want them to lay the founda- tion of a musical education, that in after life may be built upon, as leisure, talent, choice or necessity may prompt. There was a time in this country when all that was musical was foreign. The fact holds good and applicable even to the present time to some extent. It would certainly be strange and not very creditable, if we are always going to consider music a foreign luxury, that must necessarily be imported to be relished and appreciated. We are behind other countries, not in musical taste, but in mu- sical knowledge. For in other countries, elementary music forms one of the regular studies of the schools. We acknowledge with satisfaction, however, that we are daily applying a remedy to our defect, and we feel that what is now being taught in the public
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SCHOOLS .- SUPERINTENDENT'S REPORT.
school, will soon make itself felt on the public mind, and foster, extend and direct a love for this heavenly art.
JNO. J. POWER, Chairman Com. on Music."
Comparing these statements with what is apparent as to the musical knowledge of this community at the present day, it would seem as if great progress has been made in this " heavenly art " through the musical instruction in the public schools. A decided advance has also been made in the method of instruction, since it would not now be the verdict of pupils that the study of music is " dry indeed." In relieving the attention occasionally, in giving variety to the exercises of school, and in expanding the lungs, the study is pleasing and health-giving. In concerted action and in the softening influence of harmony, the asperities of school disci- pline are removed, and the pleasure which a fair knowledge of music may give through the future lives of the pupils, is incalcu- lable. To this influence in the schools may fairly be traced a large part of the steady decrease of the disagreeable in school discipline, which has steadily gone on for the last two decades. In this respect alone the value of music has been treble its cost. It has been not less valuable for the improved quality of voice which it brings in elocution. This value needs to be enhanced, and the place to so enhance it is in the primary schools.
The average number belonging to the schools in 1865 was 4720; to-day it is 10,730. Then one teacher did all the work, and he could not visit all the schools. Only one teacher is employed to-day. Another teacher could with great profit be employed in the primary grades alone. The number of pupils in these three lower grades is 4075-nearly as many as in the whole city in 1865.
The care of the eyes of children in the schools has received the attention of the Committee the past year. Opaque shades rolling from the bottom of the window have been placed in many of the school-rooms. The light not shut off is thus made to enter at the top, so that it is thrown across the room. In addition to these, light curtains rolling from the top keep out the glare while
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CITY DOCUMENT .- No. 40.
letting in the light. Whenever it is possible, the light falls at the left or at the rear of the pupils. Close attention to study is liable to aggravate certain weaknesses of the eye. For detecting this weakness every school has been provided with test letters for detecting myopia or near-sightedness; and a pair of lenses with a scale to detect hypermetropia or far-sightedness in a rough way. Teachers have been instructed in the use of this simple apparatus by Dr. Dixon ; and in several of the schools Dr. Har- rower has examined the eyes of a large number of pupils to both detect the defects of vision, and see at what stage of school life, such as appear are first seen. This service, voluntary in both cases, was performed under the direction of a special committee of the medical members of the board. The same committee printed the following for the use of teachers :-
DIRECTIONS ABOUT THE CARE OF THE EYES.
BY DR. LEWIS DIXON.
[Printed by Order of the School Committee, Worcester, June, 1885.]
Myopia, or near sight, is not often congenital but is usually acquired. It is due to elongation or bulging of the normal spherical eye-ball from before, backward; this carries the retina away from the focus. Myopia is chiefly caused by near-work, too long continued, and under wrong conditions, assisted often by hereditary tendencies. Near-work causes and increases the myopia but does not usually cause pain or fatigue. Myopia is detected by the inability to read letters of 1-3 inch square at 20 feet distance, or fine type at 10 inches, through a 10-inch lens. To prevent or check the condition, advise the child to hold head and work up and hold the work well off; to rest frequently for a few minutes, by either closing the eyes or looking at the distance ; also, to avoid unnecessary near-work, both at home and in school as much as possible. If the myopia is greater than 1-36, glasses should be worn constantly. If myopia shows a tendency towards rapid increase, especially after illness, advise complete cessation from all near-work for a while. In testing for myopia, strive to make it as small in degree as possible and doubt its presence in slight degrees till proved by repeated tests, for the eye often simulates myopia when tired. In Hypermetropia the eye-ball is congenitally too short from before, backward, the retina being in
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front of the proper focus. This condition is a fixed one, getting neither better nor worse, but it necessitates under every ordinary condition more than the proper amount of work on the part of the muscles of accommodation, and also necessitates constant (and therefore very fatiguing) instead of the normal intermittent work. Vision is perfectly good under all tests ; but it is so at the expense of constant but unconscious effort.
The symptoms are fatigue in some form, following the use of the eyes ; not necessarily felt in the eyes ; headache, pain over the eyes, blurring, nervousness, and inability to continue school work through the term. In this condition, near work is too burdensome to be continued without overtaxing the nervous system. It is detected by the ability to read 20-foot letters at 20 feet, even when assisted by a convex 36-inch lens ; or by reading fine type through a 10-inch lens at a greater distance than 10 inches. Advise sparing use of the eyes on near-work, frequent rests and avoidance of studies requiring much fine close work ; or the use of glasses which will enable the eyes to do full work without fatigue. This condition is the usual cause of strabismus or crossed eyes.
In testing for Hypermetropia always endeavor to find it, and suspect its presence till repeated tests show its absence, in all cases where the child has headache, tires easily or complains of blurring.
Astigmatism is the result of a congenitally irregular (instead of spherical) cornea ; all sight is fatiguing to such an eye, but close work particularly so. It is detected by the child's ten- dency to miscall letters and figures, by squinting or holding the head sideways to see clearly, or by seeing some of a set of radi- ating lines blacker than others. Nothing can be done but spare the eyes from near-work, unless glasses are made to order, to correct the errors. This condition is also the cause of headache, pain, nervousness and ill health.
Glasses for Hypermetropia and Myopia may be roughly but safely determined and advised for those unable to have a more accurate test made. This is done by finding the difference be- tween 1-10 and the fraction represented by 1 divided by the greatest possible number of inches at which the child can be made to read fine print through the 10-inch lens.
For example, if he reads at 8 inches, and never farther off, we have 1-8-1-10=1-40, the denominator 40 shows the focal power of the glass needed, and the point of reading being nearer than the normal (10 inches) he is near-sighted and needs concave 40 glasses.
11
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CITY DOCUMENT .- No. 40.
If 15 inches is the distance that the child can read through the 10-inch lens, then 1-10-1-15=1-30, and he needs a 30-inch glass to correct his error ; convex because he reads farther off than the normal 10 inches. So if six inches is the point, 1-6- 1-10=1-15, and concave 15 is the glass needed. If the point is 20 inches, then 1-10-1-20=1-20, and convex 20 is the glass. Remembering to make the concave glasses always as weak as you can and the convex glasses as strong as you can.
Warn children and parents in myopia that the tendency is towards increase of the trouble, and that care in regulating the amount of near-work, will do much to check the progress, and the wearing of glasses, if myopia is really present, will stop the progress. Advise against branches or courses of study involving much close work unless the pupil is willing to wear correcting glasses.
Warn parents and children in Hypermetropia that headaches, nervous symptoms of various kinds, and even ill health may result from this condition, even where no complaint is ever made of eyes or sight, and work and vision may be perfect.
Moderation in close work will usually relieve the condition ; the use of proper glasses for close work will always relieve and enable the eyes to do full work without fatigue or other trouble.
In Astigmatism, that headaches, nervous difficulties and ill health may be caused entirely by this condition, which must remain permanent unless relieved by the proper optical means.
THE TRAGEDY OF ERRORS.
In many text-books in grammar there are pages and pages of "false syntax." Teachers often write upon the black- board the errors of expression made by pupils, to be cor- rected. Others preserve with great care corrected lists of words in spelling, with the errors marked indeed, but always staring the pupil in the face whenever he recurs to the list. Others still have a tendency to emphasize the errors of all sorts which pupils make,-both errors of language and errors of habit and conduct,- till the mistakes become by far more prominent in the child's mind than the correct thoughts, actions or expressions. This habit of making prominent the wrong, is pernicious every way, and wrong in principle.
If a teacher makes use of a vulgarism or a slangy expression before his pupils once in a half day, and then corrects himself
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and uses the best language for the idea a dozen times, in the same half day, the chances are ten to one that the pupils will remember the slang and forget the correction. So also if a pupil uses language ungrammatically, and the teacher repeats the ex- pression in order to correct it, the chances are that the error will be impresed upon the mind and the correction will be forgotten. The " false syntax " paraded before a school may be corrected faithfully and the reasons for the correction may be diligently set forth. The principles involved may be illustrated and enforced with great thoroughness, and at the time all the members of the class may be able to distinguish the true from the false expres- sion. But in a short time this knowledge becomes hazy in many minds; and it will be found that the child will remember the two forms and be unable to remember which is the correct one- with a strange tendency, in fact, to fix upon the wrong one as right. Mistakes, then, should be put into the background at once. An error should not be repeated, to become familiar to the child. Much less should it be written on the blackboard or printed in any form. Written words misspelled ought to be erased as soon as they are discovered. Wrong habits, wrong actions, and wrong thoughts ought to be discouraged, not by repeating them and attracting attention to them, but by covering them from sight, and relegating them to forgetfulness as soon as pos- sible, and putting what is right and best in their places. It is not too much to say that no error ought to be seen in print ; and no error of any kind should be left written upon a -blackboard to be seen by the pupils a moment after it has been discovered.
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