USA > New York > Loyalism in New York during the American revolution > Part 15
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There was a marked difference between the treatment of loyalists by the civil and military authorities of Great Brit- ain. Loud and bitter were the complaints made by loyalists concerning the cruelty, robbery, insults and ill treatment they suffered from the British army. The whigs were called "rebels," but the tories were sneered at as " damned traitors
Parl. Reg. (1775), i, 186.
2 Annual Reg. (1776), Proclamation of the Howes in June.
" Am. Archs., 4th ser., i, 340-341.
4 Can. Archs. (1885), 181, Hutcheson to Haldimand, July 10, 1776; ibid., 182, Aug. 8, 14 and 26, 1776, and Jan. 1, 1777. Five loyalist governors were there at once.
5 Docs. rel. to N. Y. Col. Hist., viii, 781.
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and scoundrels."' On Long Island the loyalists were plun- dered of crops, cattle, horses and even household goods.2 On Staten Island " the tories were cruelly used," plundered and maltreated, until they were even willing to poison the British.3 Those who went with the whigs and then deserted were well-treated,+ while the loyal farmers who voluntarily gave liberal supplies to the British, were later harshly ordered to continue it.5 It was not uncommon to impress loyalists into military service.6 Those who went to Halifax in 1776 were told that they must take up arms, or get no relief, and some were even forced to work in coal mines.7 It was re- ported that Sir Guy Carleton whipped all loyalists who re- fused to arm.8 For inciting desertion loyalist soldiers were given 1000 lashes.9 Burgoyne grumbled about them, said they had been overrated, and attributed his defeat largely to them.1º Because of the barbarities of the British, many loy- alists refused to join them." The harshest loyalist tirades were written against the unjustifiable conduct of British mil- itary officers.12
1 Am. Archs., 5th ser., ii, 1276; cf. Rivington's Royal Gazette, Jan, 30, 1779, no. 244; ibid., May 22, 1779, no. 276.
? Jones, Ilist. of N. Y., i, 114-118, 136.
3 Am. Archs., 5th ser., i, 1110, 1112, 1532; cf. Wharton, Dip. Corresp. of Am. Rev., i, 303.
' Rivington's Royal Gazette, Jan. 30, May I, and May 22, 1779, no. 276, etc.
5 Ibid., Sep. 10, 1778, Mch. 13, 1779, Jan. 23, 1779, no. 242, etc.
6 Can. Archs., (1886), 594, no. 69; Public Papers of George Clinton, i, 548; Am. Archs., 5th ser., i, 1112.
7 Ibid., 46, 98.
8 Can. Archs. (1888), 774, Phillips to Carleton, Apr. 11, 1776.
9 Ibid. (1885), 191, 256.
10 Ibid. (1883), 75, 76, 77, (1888), 746, 748, (1890), 86.
11 Wharton, Dip. Corresp. of the Am. Rev., i, 22-24; Jones, Hist. of N. Y., i, 138, 201, 341, ii, 136, 137; cf. Am. Mag. of Hist., vi, 421.
12 Cf. Jones, Hist. of N. Y.
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LOYALISM IN NEW YORK [186
Relying upon the promises made by the king's agents and on their own expectations, loyalists early asked for material aid from the civil power. In 1776 it was written that there was not a province in America " which does not afford shoals of petitioners hanging about the treasury." In fact, the ad- ministration was " unable to answer the numerous demands."1 Those fleeing to England for loyalty's sake were either given positions or granted temporary annuities.2 In New York city, from the time of Howe's arrival till the treaty of peace, loyalists were received with open arms by the royal agents. Many were given lucrative civil or military offices, and all refugees received more or less aid.3 The deserted lands and houses of the revolutionists in southern New York were given, leased or rented to them.4 They were allowed to cut timber, and build houses on vacant lands.5 Sub- scriptions were taken for the needy, who were ordered to go in a body to the police office for aid.6 The " associated ref- ugee loyalists," organized to make themselves self-support- ing, held lotteries to raise money.7 As late as March 10, 1783, suffering loyalists were asked to apply for their allow- ances.8 Governor Tryon wished to institute an office of in-
1 Am. Archs., 5th ser., i, 149, Oliver to Winslow, July 10, 1776; cf. ibid., ii, 1317.
2 Docs. rel. to N. Y. Col. ITist., viii, 569. April 5, 1775, Drs. Cooper and Chand- ler were voted an annual allowance of {200.
" Ibid., 568, 773-774, 799, 809. James Rivington was made royal printer at £100 a year. Can. Archs. (1883), 71; Rivington's Royal Gazette, Jan. 30, March 10, 1779, and Dec. 23 and 28, 1780. Christopher Billopp was made policeman of Staten Island.
+ Ibid., Feb. 17, 1779, no. 249; Docs. rel. to N. Y. Col. Hist., viii, 774, 809.
5 Rivington's Royal Gazette, Feb. 17, and March 24, 1779.
6 Ibid., March 13, 1778, no. 256.
" Ibid .. Nov. 13, 1779, Dec. 27, 1780, etc .; Docs. rel. to N. Y. Col. Hist., viii. 769-770.
8 Gaine's N. Y. Gazette, March 17, 1783, no. 1639.
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quiry " to examine and register all loyalists coming into the British lines and to take cognizance of their losses and suf- ferings."1 Lord George Germain expected New York to compensate loyalists for their losses, when the rebellion should be stamped out.2 Through these various helpful measures the British officials hoped to lighten the burden of the loyalists and to lessen the expense to government.3
The many loyalists who went to Canada, and the few who went to Nova Scotia before 1782 were given food and shelter until some definite provision could be made for them. Sir Guy Carleton wrote to General Phillips from Quebec that temporary relief would be given all New York refugees.+ Those who joined Burgoyne and fled north after his sur- render were well cared for.5 By July 1, 1779, there were 853 loyalists, excluding soldiers, in Canada receiving pro- visions at seven different points,6 and this number rapidly increased. Comfortable houses and barracks were provided, or else huts were built for them.7 Some were allowed to settle on estates as tenants.8 Machiche was set aside as a refuge for the wives and children of loyalists in the British service.9 The general policy was to receive all loyalists, help the needy, encourage the men to enlist in the army, and make' all as self-supporting as possible. Hence the women were given washing to do,10 and the men were sup-
' Docs. rel. to N. Y. Col. Hist., viii, 771, Tryon to Clinton, July 26, 1779.
' Ibid., 768, Germain to Robertson, July 9, 1779.
3 Ibid., 801, Robertson to Germain, Sept. 1, 1780.
' Can. Archs. (1885), 250, (1888), 744.
5 Ibid. (1886), 387, 393, 399, 407, 528, 544, 594, 655-659, 660, 663, (1888), 648, 687, 732, 734, 742.
" Ibid. (1886), 404, no. 294. 1 Ibid. (1886), 401, Oct. 1, 1778, (1888), 732.
6 Ibid. (1886), 403, Oct. 7, 1778; cf. Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontario, 156.
9 Can. Archs. (1888), 726, Jan. 22, 1781.
10 Ibid., (1888), 688, June 25, 1780.
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LOYALISM IN NEW YORK [188
plied with other work.1 Still fuel, beds, and household goods were furnished them,2 clothing was given,3 and occa- sionally money was paid them as pensions.4 Arms were re- fused, however.5 Their claims were usually submitted to, and passed on by, a board appointed for that purpose.6 In 1782 Townshend ordered General Haldimand to provision the loyalists, make out a list of them, and return an account of their losses.7 Officers were detailed to watch and guard them, and monthly reports of their condition were made.8 England's policy of strict economy in dealing with them, and the scarcity of supplies, caused much suffering among them,9 as was natural under the circumstances of war; still her treatment was just and generous, and the complaints were comparatively few. It was believed by both loyalists and Englishmen that, when the revolution was crushed, the ex- penses incurred would be paid by the rebellious colonies.
The refusal of New York to comply with the terms of peace relating to the loyalists threw 35,000 of them upon the British government for temporary support.1º Compen- sation had been promised them and now they demanded it, not as charity, but as justice. The vast majority of the loyalists had lost but little property. Many who went to Nova Scotia took their personal effects with them, and some even tore down their houses to take the material to the wil-
1 Can. Archs. (1888), 627, 651, 724, 727, 732, 745, 749, 977.
' Ibid. (1886), 405, Nov. 19, 1778.
B Ibid. (1888), 648, 734.
+ Ibid. (1888), 729, 734, 750.
5 Ibid. (1888), 722.
6 Ibid. (1888), 748, 750, (1886), 418, (1887), 106, 108.
1 Ibid. (1885), 284, Feb. 28.
B Ibid. (1888), 685, 721, 725, 736, 745, (1886), 402.
9 Ibid. (1886), 544, (1888), 658, 725, 726, 736.
10 Ibid. (1886), 552, no. 50.
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derness for new homes.' Not a few were able to dispose of their property before leaving.2 Those who went to Canada after 1783 drove their live stock before them and took as much personal property as they could carry, while others returned for their goods.3 Losing little of value through loyalism, most of the unfortunates demanded no more of the crown than land and supplies for starting again in life. The minority of the loyalists, composed of the wealthy, who had lost all their possessions, offices and established incomes for the sake of the unity of the empire, demanded indemnity in British gold.
England accepted the responsibility. To the loss of her colonies and the war debt was added this extra burden. All loyalists were to be treated as fairly and equitably as possible. To the masses, therefore, lands, tools, provisions and seeds were given in British North America. To in- fluential citizens, army officers, royal officials and loyal churchmen were given larger land grants, lucrative positions in the army, state or church, or pensions. Actual losses were made good in proportion to services rendered. All who suffered in their "rights, properties and professions"
' Sabine, Loyalists of Am. Rev., i, 288; cf. Gaine's N. Y. Gazette, Aug. 29, 1783, and Sept. 8, 1783. The Board of Commissioners had to be consulted before it could be done.
" Onderdonk, Queens Co. in Olden Times, 61-63. This was in accord with the treaty of peace. Jones, Hist. of N. Y., i, 266-268. The papers are full of sales, auctions, etc., of loyalists about to leave. Israel Young, of Queens co., sold his farm of 500 acres before going to Nova Scotia. MS. Transcript of . . Papers . . of the American Loyalists, vol. 17, p. 192. Christopher Billopp sold his estate on Staten Island in 1782. He had 1078 acres valued at {15 an acre. He sold it for {8000, but lost, he claimed, $5000 by it. Ibid., vol. 4. Benjamin Seaman sold his estate on Staten Island before leaving. Sabine, ii, 272. Henry Mellows went to New York to sell his property after the war. MS. Transcript of . . Books and Papers . . of the American Loyalists, vol. 18, p. 65. C. W. Apthorp remained in New York city to sell his property before going to Canada. Ibid., vol, 17, p. 581.
' Can. Archs. (1886), 412; Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontario, 143.
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for the sake of loyalty were recognized as having a claim to compensation.1 Before evacuating New York city, Sir Guy Carleton was instructed to collect the loyalists' debts in ac- cordance with the treaty of peace. He created a commis- sion to examine all loyalists' claims, above £10, contracted after November 1, 1776, to hear all parties, call witnesses, ascertain the exact sums due each claimant and collect them. The commissioners sat for seven months, drew their pay, but compelled the payment of no debts. The loyalists protested in vain. Evacuation took place, and they lost the honest debts due them.2
By inducing loyalists to settle in Canada or Nova Scotia, Great Britain made good her promise to reimburse them, and, at the same time, was developing rich parts of the em- pire in a much-needed direction. As early as May 9, 1782, loyalists applied for lands in Nova Scotia.3 Governor Parr advised that each family be given 500 acres of land, every single man 300 acres, and that 2,000 acres for a church, and 1,000 acres for a school be set aside in each township.4 It was estimated that there were 12,000,000 acres of ungranted, cultivable lands in Nova Scotia in 1783.5 Surveying began in the spring of that year, and by October it had cost £3,000.6 Seven surveyors plotted the land for a distance of 150 miles up the St. John ; six men did the same work for the district of Shelburne, Port Mouton and the coast between the two; five surveyed Annapolis, Bason, St. Mary's Bay, Clare, Conway
1 23 George III., ch. 8c.
2 Jones, Hist. of N. Y., ii, 266-268; Gaine's N. Y. Gazette, April 2, 1783.
' Can. Archs. (1894), 400.
Ibid. (1894), 401, Parr to Townshend, Oct. 26, 1782; Lawrence, Footprints, etc., p. 1-2.
$ Can. Archs. (1894), 103, April 23, 1783.
Ibid. (1894), 404, 405, June 7, 10 and 24, 1783; Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 23.
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TREATMENT OF THE LOYALISTS
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and Bear River. Passamaquoddy Bay and the coast east to the St. John were divided by four surveyors, while one man did the work at Newport, and another at Dartmouth.1 Prior to April 10, 1784, this work had cost £1,838 more, and 1,000,- 000 acres had been surveyed and divided into lots.2 It was still in progress in November.' The surveying was not ade- quate to the demand, and occasioned considerable discon- tent.4 Escheated estates5 and a quarter of the lands of the Acadia Land Company were opened to settlers.6 There was little uniformity in the size of grants.7 The ordinary lot was 200 acres 8 for each individual, with an additional two hundred acres for non-commissioned army officers, and fifty acres for privates.9 Carleton urged the granting of 5,000 acres to each of fifty-five field officers, but the home government restricted the number to 1,000.1º Loyalists were exempt from fees and quit-rents for ten years.II By August 10, 1784, grants for nearly 5,000 families, or 20,120 persons, had passed the seal,12 and others followed, until every loyalist had his farm. Lands were granted as late as June 20, 1792.13
Provisions for one year were supplied to loyalists when they left New York, and upon reaching Nova Scotia they
1 Can. Archs. (1894), 408, Oct. 21, 1783.
' Ibid. (1894), 417; Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 31.
' Can. Archs. (1894), 427, Parr to Sydney, Nov. 15, 1784.
Ibid. (1894), 417, April 11 and 16, 1784.
$ Ibid. (1894), 407, Aug. 28, 1783.
" Ibid. (1894), 406, Aug. 8, 1783; ibid., 407, Sept. 23, 1783.
1 Ibid. (1894), 407, Aug. 28, 1783.
Ibid. (1895), 13, July 4, 1787.
' Ibid. (1894), 406, Aug. 8, 1783.
10 Ibid. (1894), 414, 416, 417, 418.
11 Ibid. (1894), 406.
12 Ibid. (1894), 423.
13 Ibid. (1895), 27. In 1790 2000 acres were granted to Isaac Wilkins, 2600 acres to Major Philip Van Cortlandt, etc. Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 94.
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LOYALISM IN NEW YORK [192
were to be fed until the "instructions for granting lands" could be carried out.1 In 1784, a few could care for them- selves, but the governor urged a continuation of food for the needy.2 To prevent frauds and abuses a board was formed to examine the claims of the loyalists for provisions ; 3 yet it was reported on November 30, 1785, that 26,300 men, women and children were still " entitled to provisions which they fully merit." 4 It was not until June of 1786 that rations were cut off,5 but the action was not final, for as late as September 22, 1792, relief was given to loyalists in dis- tress.6 Clothing, medicine, and other supplies, were also furnished.7
General Carleton, in sending the refugees to Nova Scotia, recommended that they be given " materials and artificers for building."8 Governor Parr, without authority from home, promised them boards for houses to the value of £1,000,9 and by February 4, 1784, lumber amounting in value to £4,500 had been thus distributed.10 The supply stopped in November of that year," after more than another £1,000 had been distributed in building materials.12 Nails, window glass, shingles and bricks, and carpenter tools were also supplied. The king ordered iron work for grist and saw-mills, tools for the woods and farms, boats and tents and necessary im- plements of husbandry to the value of £5,500, to be sent out
1 Can. Archs. (1894), 404-406, 408; cf. Lawrence, Footprints, etc., 1-2.
2 Can. Archs. (1894), 413, 414, 416.
$ Ibid. (1894), 417, April 20, 1784.
+ Ibid. (1894), 438.
5 Ibid. (1894), 443, 447. 6 Ibid. (1895), 27; New Brunswick Papers.
7 Raymond, The U. E. Loyalists, 11.
8 Can. Archs. (1894), 401, Oct. 26, 1782; cf. Lawrence, Footprints, etc., p. 1-2.
9 Can. Archs. (1894), 402, Jan. 15, 1783; Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 12.
10 Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 19-23; Can. Archs. (1894), 413.
11 Can. Archs. (1894), 427, Nov. 15, 1784.
12 Ibid. (1894), 418, May 1, 1784, (1895), 43.
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. TREATMENT OF THE LOYALISTS
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and distributed among the loyalists.' They were further as- sisted in agriculture with grains and seeds .? "Many thou- sands of loyalists have taken refuge in the province, to whom assistance has been given," wrote an officer.3 Although there was some discontent,4 chiefly over the delay in sur- veys, the apportionments, and the various supplies, still within two years what had been the wilds of Nova Scotia, began to give evidence of a healthy civilization.5 The peo- ple cleared and settled their lands, built their homes and formed villages-" all seemingly happy and contented."6 On January 2, 1785, Governor Parr wrote, "The loyalists are at last contented and getting on exceedingly well in clearing and cultivating their lands." 7 And so well pleased was the king with their prosperity, that he immediately ordered a retrenchment in expenses.8 For surveys, lumber, tools and seeds certainly not less than $100,000 had been spent.9 For transportation, clothing, provisions during at least two and a half years, and governmental expenses, probably $4,500,000 additional was required to make the colony pros- perous and self-supporting. About two-thirds of this expen- diture was in behalf of New York loyalists.
The treatment of loyalists in Canada after the treaty of peace was similar to that which they experienced in Nova
1 Can. Archs. (1894), 411, (1895), 43; cf. Perley, Early Hist. of New Bruns., 20.
? Ibid. (1894), 412, Jan. 3, 1784. 8 Ibid. (1888), 578, May 20, 1783.
+ Ibid. (1894), 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 419, 422, 423, 424, 426, 429, 443, 447; Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 29, 31.
$ Can. Archs. (1894), 413, 414, 421, 427.
6 Ibid. (1894), 422, 426.
Ibid. (1894), 430.
8 Ibid. (1894), 431, March 8, 1785.
" By August 11, 1784, the expenses for land grants and surveys alone amounted to {10,345. Murdock, Hist. of Nova Scotia, iii, 33. Major Studholm spent {6,721 for lumber and house building. Perley, Early Hist. of New Brunswick,. 20. It is assumed that these figures were on a sterling basis.
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LOYALISM IN NEW YORK
[194
Scotia. So far as possible, compensation was to be made in land grants. In June, 1783, General Haldimand asked Lord North about settlements for the loyalists. The Gov- ernor of Quebec received instructions about land grants July 23, 1783.' Surveys began immediately and were pushed forward with all possible speed.2 Eight townships were surveyed in the neighborhood of Lake St. Francis, and five more at Cataraqui, or Kingston.3 Other localities on the Sorel, along the St. Lawrence, and on the northern shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie were then plotted. There was no absolute uniformity in the size of the grants, although the general rule was to give every adult male and every widow 200 acres.4 The provincial council in 1789 ordered the land boards to grant 200 acres each to all sons and daughters of loyalists " as they arrive to full age." 5 Loyalists on the Sorel received 60 acres each and a town lot.6 Civil and military officials were given larger grants.7 Stephen De- Lancey received 1,000 acres,8 and Major Van Alstine, 1,200 acres.9 These lands were granted free from all expense.10 In upper Canada 3,200,000 acres were given loyalists who settled there before 1787. About 730,000 acres went to loyalist militiamen,11 450,000 to discharged soldiers and sailors, 225,000 to magistrates and barristers, 136,000 to
1 Can. Archs. (1885), 285.
Ibid. (1885), 375. " It swelled the expense." Ibid. (1886), 414, 417.
' Ibid. (1885), 310; Kingsford, Hist. of Canada, vii, 218.
‘Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontario, 165; Can. Archs. (1886), 428, 457, 585, 586.
" Ibid. (1890), 245, 250, Nov. 9, 1789; The United Empire Loyalists' Centen- nial (1884), 127-128.
" Can. Archs. (1887), 440, (1886), 426.
7 Ibid. (1886), 427, 428, 457, 585.
8 Ibid. (1886), 428, May 24, 1784.
9 Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontario, 107.
10 Ibid., 165.
11 All loyalists not otherwise designated were classed under this head.
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executive councillors, 50,000 to five legislative councillors, 37,000 to clergymen, 264,000 to surveyors and helpers, 500,000 for schools, 93,000 to officers of the army and navy, and smaller tracts to prominent persons.1 Field officers re- ceived 5,000 acres, captains 3,000, subalterns 2,000, and privates 200. Loyalist civilians were ranked with the dis- banded soldiers, according to their losses and to services rendered.2 In 1798 the grants were limited to tracts varying from 200 to 1,200 acres each.3 At first grants were made in lots of 200 acres each. They were numbered, the num- bers put in a hat and drawn out by the petitioners.+ The surveyor acted as land agent and wrote the names of owners upon the map of the surveys.5 This democratic method was denounced by the officers.6 In 1788 "many applications " from people in the " States" were made for lands, and it was estimated that 20,000 or 30,000 " who were attached to the king's government " could be secured by inducements in land grants.7 Governor Simcoe, under this belief, issued a pro- clamation in 1792 inviting them to Canada, but he was removed and his action nullified.8
By 1789 about 17,000 loyalists were settled above Mon- treal.9 As soon as possible after surveys were made, loyal- ists were to be sent to settle the lands.10 The early arrivals and the late-comers were to be treated alike." The only test was loyalty."' During the spring of 1784 the officers were
1 Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontario, 176. 2 Ibid., 179. * Ibid., 180.
' Can. Archs. (1885), 367, Nov. 18, 1783.
' Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontarto, 180. Many of these maps are preserved in the Crown Land Department.
6 Can. Archs. (1886), 429, 431. 1 Ibid., (1890), 218, 219.
8 Caniff, Hist. of Prov. of Ontario, 190.
9 Can. Archs. (1890), 236.
10 Ibid. (1886), 410, Jan. 22, 1784, 412, 413.
11 Ibid. (1886), 409, Dec. 29, 1783, 409, 421, 422. The soldiers, if any, were to be shown preference, April 15, 1784.
12 Ibid. (1886), 422.
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LOYALISM INN NEW YORK [196
busy making out lists of those desiring lands.1 A circular letter was sent to the loyalist leaders explaining the condition of the lands and the character of the grants.2 Some petitioned to settle on Missisquoi Bay, but the request was refused for the public good, because of fear of trouble with the United States.3 Loyalists were permitted to settle on seigniories, though crown lands were recommended.+ The movement towards the new settlement began in March, 1784,5 and on April 16, the order was sent forth " That the whole of the loyalists must move at once to their settle- ments."6 In May removal was well under way from all points toward the west,7 and by July they were drawing lots and locating on their lands.3 Of the eight townships situ- ated above Lake St. Francis, those numbered from one to five were settled by 1,462 of the King's Royal Regiment of New York, and those from six to eight by 495 of Jessup's Corps. Of the five townships at Cataraqui Captain Grass' party of 187 took the first, 434 of Jessup's Corps the second, 310 of the King's Royal Regiment of New York and Major Rogers with 299 the third, Major Van Alstine with 258 and some of Roger's men the fourth, and 303 soldiers of various regiments part of the fifth. This made a total of about 3,800 single men and heads of families.9 At Lachine, Montreal, Chambly, St. Johns, the Bay of Chaleurs, on the Sorel, and at other places, were located enough loyalist set-
1 Can. Archs. (1886), 411, 412, 413.
2 Ibid. (1886), 414, March 4, 1784.
3 Ibid. (1886), 462, 463.
+ Ibid. (1886), 411, 414, (1888), 710.
5 Ibid. (1886), 416, 417.
6 Ibid. (1886), 420, 421, (1888), 957, 958.
1 Ibid. (1886), 424, 425, 426, 432, 462, (1887), 439, 440.
8 Ibid. (1887), 164, 226. The provincial troops were located in corps as much as possible. Ibid. (1886), 422.
9 Ibid. (1888), 753, July, 1784, (1891), 5.
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tlers to raise the number, by October, 1784, to 5,628.1 Counting those who were at Niagara,2 on Lake Erie, in the cities, on seigniories,3 in Lower Canada, and those who came later, the total would reach at least 20,000 and probably 25,000.4 Being forced to "actually sit down upon their lots,"5 huts were immediately built by the settlers, and in a few years were replaced by comfortable houses.6 The settle- ment of the loyalists was still in progress in 1790.7
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