USA > Pennsylvania > Pennsylvania, colonial and federal : a history, 1608-1903, Volume Three > Part 6
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Dr. E. E. Higbee resigned the presidency of Mercersburg Col- lege, when he was appointed ( April, 1881) to take charge of the school department. He held the office of superintendent by suc- cessive appointments until his death, December 13, 1889. To the fullest possible extent he favored the policy of delivering ad- dresses in all parts of the State, which had been inaugurated by Dr. Burrowes and Superintendent Hickok, a custom which has been followed to this day by his successors. He did much to en- courage the erection of better school houses and to inspire the teachers with loftier ideals of scholarship. In 1887, during the administration of Dr. Higbee, the legislature voted an increase in the annual appropriation to one and one-half million dollars, and in the same year the minimum school term was extended from five to six months.
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D. J. Waller, Jr., D. D., succeeded Dr. Higbee in the State superintendency. During his term of office the annual school appropriation was increased to five million dollars, and subse- quently another half million was added. When he was appoint- ed, the practice of having divided school terms prevailed in many districts in the northern tier of counties. He advocated contin- med school terms and claimed that the law did not sanction a di- vision of the school year into two or three short terms, as was done by school boards in certain districts, and now there are no divided school terms in Pennsylvania. In the discharge of his duties he visited all parts of the State, addressing teachers' insti- tutes and attending high school commencements.
Nathan C. Schaeffer, present superintendent of public instruc- tion, was first appointed in June, 1893, by Governor Pattison. In response to the wishes of educators generally he was reappointed by Governor Hastings and again by Governor Stone. As evi- dence of the fact that the school department has been lifted above the mutations of politics it should be mentioned that Hon. Henry Houck has held the office of Deputy Superintendent for more than thirty years. He has addressed more teachers' institutes and poured more sunshine into the vocation of teaching than any other educator in America.
The succession of superintendents of common schools1 and of superintendents of public instruction is as follows :
Superintendents of Common Schools .- James Findlay, De- cember 17, 1833; Thomas H. Burrowes, December 15, 1835; Francis R. Shunk, January 15, 1839; Anson V. Parsons, January 25, 1842; Charles McClure, February 20, 1843; Jesse Miller, January 21, 1845; Townsend Haines, July 29, 1848; Alexander L. Russel, January 25, 1850; Francis W. Hughes, January 21, 1852; Charles A. Black, March 14, 1853; Andrew G. Curtin,
1It will be remembered that previous to 1857 the secretary of the Commonwealth was ex officio superintendent of common schools.
Mr. Hickok was the first incumbent after the school department was separated from the secretaryship.
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January 17, 1855; Henry C. Hickok, 1857; Thomas H. Bur- rowes, 1860; Charles R. Coburn, 1863; James P. Wickersham, 1866-1875.
Superintendents of Public Instruction .- James P. Wicker- sham, June 1, 1875; E. E. Higbee, April 1, 1881, died in office December 13, 1890; Dr. D. J. Waller, March 1, 1890; Nathan C. Schaeffer, June 1, 1893.
Teachers' Certificates .- The development of the system of granting licenses to teach forms a chapter of interest in the educa- tional history of Pennsylvania. The various grades of certifi- cates were brought into existence through the needs of individual schools. In no other material respect is our own system so little indebted to the example of other States. The act of 1834 pre- scribed that no certificate should be given any teacher unless the applicant was qualified to teach reading, writing and arithmetic.
Soon after the election of the first county superintendents State Superintendent Black called a convention at Harrisburg and thirty-six counties responded. Previous to the organization of the convention the superintendent delivered an address, in the course of which he said : "It is not often that such a body of men, for such a purpose, has convened at the State capital. Conven- tions, it is true, are frequently held at the seat of government, mostly for political and sometimes for moral and religious pur- poses, but seldom for the advancement of the cause of education. It is a rare thing-but, I trust, to be rare no longer-for a body of men, like those around me, to meet for the sole purpose of giv- ing encouragement and aid to our common school system. This I feel will be but the beginning of a long series of similar meet- ings ; and from the awakened interest in the public mind, I augur a new era, indeed, for common schools. It rests with you, gen- tlemen, and other friends of the cause throughout the State, to foster and encourage this feeling; to go forth with a brave spirit and earnest purpose, and to make our common school system what it can and should be, the pride and glory of the Commonwealth."
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A part of this prophecy has been fulfilled. Not a year passes without two or three meetings for the advancement of the com- mon schools. The convention of Normal School principals and State conventions of school directors meet annually at Harris-
Nicholas Biddle
Financier; editor; member State Legislature 1810-18II; started the legislative agitation for a State public school system; advocated re- charter of the United States Bank; State sen- ator during War of 1812; president re-char- tered United States Bank; aided in establish- ment of Girard College
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burg, and the convention of city and borough superintendents meets there during the years in which the legislature is in session.
At the first convention of county superintendents a number of committees were appointed to make reports. One of these made
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a report through its chairman, Dr. Wickersham, in which three grades of certificates were recommended, corresponding to pri- mary, secondary and high schools. The school department ap- proved the action of the convention in regard to provisional cer- tificates, but instead of issuing forms for the other grades, it recommended a form intended for professional teachers.
In reference to the general qualification of teachers a published circular of the department further says : "The examination of teachers will be a responsible duty and great judgment must be exercised. The object should be to ascertain the applicant's gen- eral knowledge in the branches named in the law, and in such other branches as may be indicated by the directors, and his skill in the art of teaching-not to embarrass or confuse with perplex- ing questions. It is true that this knowledge and skill can only be arrived at by practical illustrations ; but then it must be per- fectly obvious that a person may be an accomplished scholar in all the branches named and well skilled in the art of teaching, and yet be unable to answer at the first blush some novel question in arith- metic or English grammar, or to give the boundary of some ob- scure country in a distant part of the globe."
Early in his term Superintendent Burrowes endeavored to raise the standard of qualification used in certificating teachers and make it more uniform throughout the State. To this end he issued instructions to county superintendents, first insisting upon the adoption of a minimum standard below which no certificate should be granted, and then naming in detail the degrees of scholarship in the several branches taught in common schools requisite, in his judgment, as conditions for granting the differ- ent kinds and grades of certificates.
In speaking of the old form of teachers' certificates in contrast with the new, Dr. Burrowes said: "It is somewhat remarkable that the same officer (Dr. Wickersham), who devised this then wise expedient, has had, as State superintendent, the privilege as well as the duty of taking the first effectual step towards render-
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ing the teacher's certificate what it should be, an evidence of full qualification and permanent standing in a learned profession."
In 1867 a new grade of certificate was authorized-called the permanent certificate-in the granting of which it was desired that the school department, the superintendents, the directors and the teachers should have a voice. The professional certificates then in the hands of teachers were annulled, although superintend- ents were given power to renew them without examination. This legislation was justified by County Superintendent Person at the meeting of the State association at Allentown.
In theory the granting of permanent certificates seemed to be a wise plan to make teaching a regular profession, but in practice it opened the door for the admission of many iniquitous practices. To remedy the evil an act was passed requiring questions and answers to be sent to the department of public instruction before the permaennt certificates were issued. At times the efficiency of county institutes was destroyed in the excitement of the contest for membership upon the examining committee, and to repair this defect a law was passed in 1895 whereby the appointment of the committee was placed in the hands of the State superintendent.
Several grades of certificates came into existence through the development of the Normal school system. At first three courses were established, known as the elementary, the scientific and the classical, for which corresponding certificates were granted. Sub- sequently the classical course was dropped, then the scientific, and in 1902 the elementary course was supplanted by the regular Nor- mal School course.
Since graduation from a State Normal school is preceded by study and practice in the Model school during a period of from six months to a year, the course of the Normal graduate virtually covers three years' teaching before he or she is entitled to a life certificate. Practical teachers who present the required evidence of three years' successful teaching can obtain what is called "the practical teachers' certificate," of equal grade with that of the
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regular graduate, by passing examinations before the faculty and State board. For several years there was dissatisfaction in certain circles because the college graduate was compelled to pass an examination in order to teach in the public schools. In 1893 a bill was introduced in the legislature to authorize the issue of permanent certificates to college graduates without examination, and after several amendments it was passed by both houses and became a law on May 10. It requires three years of successful teaching in the public schools as a condition to granting a certifi- cate. If the applicant has taught three years before graduating from college, he can secure a certificate as soon as he receives from a recognized college any one of the five degrees A. B., B. S., Ph. B., A. M., M. S. This somewhat complex method of granting teachers' licenses works well in practice, because it is an out- growth of the system and covers the needs of the schools as they become manifest in the prolonged efforts to increase their effi- ciency and usefulness.
Pennsylvania Educational Association .- The State Teachers' association was organized at Harrisburg, in December, 1852. At first two meetings were held each year, but since 1857 one meet- ing annually (with the exception of 1879) has been held. In 1900 the name was changed to Pennsylvania Educational Associa- tion, a new constitution was adopted, and provision was made for the organization of departments devoted to special topics like child-study, the kindergarten, and higher education.
The State Directors' Association and the Association of City and Borough Superintendents have been affiliated as departments of the educational association, although their sessions are held at a different time and place. The new constitution seems to have enlarged the scope of activity and interest, and the power for good of the various associations which have become part of the general organization.
Teachers' Institutes .- As a means of reaching the people and creating a healthful school sentiment the annual teachers' insti-
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Simon Snyder
Member State Constitutional Convention 1790; member State Legislature 1797, and its speaker 1802-1808; governor 1808-1817; State senator 1817-1819
The Educational System
tutes have been a potent factor among the educational forces of the State. The system grew out of voluntary meetings of teachers held in Warren, Lawrence, and Indiana counties, and the move- ment soon extended to Lancaster, Crawford, Chester, Erie, Wayne and Susquehanna counties. A special law was passed for Chester, permitting aid from the county treasury. When Dr. Wickersham saw that township institutes had proved a failure in many sections, he adopted a plan for an annual institute, with aid from the county treasury, the sum to be not less than $60 nor more than $200, and to be determined within these limits by the actual attendance of teachers.
A general institute act was passed in 1867, and later another act authorized closing the schools during the week selected for the institute and required school boards to pay the teachers their regular salary (up to two dollars per diem) for each day of at- tendance, including half a day each for going from and returning to their homes. With the exception of Philadelphia, which works under a special law, all teachers attend the institute unless neces- sarily prevented. The law governing institutes has been modi- fied so as to allow cities and boroughs with fifty teachers or more to hold separate institutes, whereby the superintendent is enabled to adapt the instruction to the particular needs of graded schools.
The School Term .- The act of 1836 contemplated six months' terms for the schools of the State, in case the funds of the districts were sufficient, but in most cases they were kept open only three months. In 1849 the minimum term was made four months, but in 1851 the law governing terms was abolished. The act of 1854 again fixed the term at four months, and in 1872 it was lengthened to five months. In 1881 the friends of still longer school terms started a movement at the State Teachers' Association to make the minimum six months, and their efforts were rewarded with suc- cess six years later in the passage of the act of 1887, although much opposition was required to be overcome in gaining the de- sired end.
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The same year an effort was made to increase the general school appropriation from one million to one and one-half million dollars, but this measure also aroused determined opposition and required patient effort to secure its enactment into a law. The movement for a seven months' term, also, was started in the State Teachers' association. The committee on legislation prepared a bill which failed to pass during the session of 1897, but through the help of considerate friends of the schools, it became a law dur- ing the session of 1899.
Free Text-Books .- During the constitutional convention of 1874 there were long debates on the question of uniformity of text-books to be used in the public schools. It was suggested that the State superintendent be authorized to select the books, and it was also proposed to establish a board, consisting of the governor, attorney-general and the superintendent of public in- struction, for the same purpose. A ten-year limit was favored by some and a five year limit was proposed by others. No result was reached, however, and the power of selection was allowed to remain in the hands of school directors. The act of 1854 made it the duty of the school directors immediately after the annual choice of teachers, and before the opening of the schools, to select school books after consultation with the teachers, and specified that those and no other should be used.
The lack of uniformity of text-books and the competition among publishing houses was the occasion of much annoyance and injury to the common school system. Frequently parents were obliged to purchase entirely new books after a removal from one township to another. The act of 1857 sought to remedy this difficulty by giving the directors power at a triennial convention to adopt text-books for an entire county. Even this law was so unsatisfactory that it was repealed at the end of two years, and in its stead an act was passed to prevent changes in books oftener than once in three years. A new act providing for free text-books was passed by the legislature in 1893, and was approved May 18.
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It saved fully one-third of the annual cost for books throughout the State, and all difficulties arising from lack of uniformity were permanently settled. From that time the poor man's child could have the books and supplies without personal cost, and could not be deterred from entering the high school by reason of the expense involved in the purchase of the necessary books. Although the
Abner Lacock
Member both branches of the State Legisla- turc; congressman 1811-1813; United States senator, 1813-1819
schools in the year ending June, 1901, were attended by 1, 161,524 pupils, the expense for text-books and supplies during that year was only $1, 194,584.86, an average of $1.03 per pupil.
Compulsory Education .- At a meeting of the State Teachers' Association, held at Allentown in 1868, Dr. Burrowes called atten- tion to the absence from school of many children of school age, and introduced a resolution asking for the distribution of the school appropriation upon the basis of actual attendance instead of the number of resident taxable citizens. Had this resolution
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then gone into effect, it would practically have made every tax- payer a truant officer, giving him a direct interest in securing the fullest possible attendance at school. A committee of three was appointed to make a report at the next meeting upon absenteeism of children from school, the evils resulting therefrom, and the frame of a bill to correct them. The committee reported at the Greens- burg meeting that the education of 100,000 children in Pennsyl- vania was then wholly neglected; in Illinois 150,000; in Ohio 135,000; in New York 200,000. "Very judicious computations," says the report, "make the number of children in the United States not receiving even an elementary education to be two and one-half millions. Among the evils resulting from this absentee- ism the report enumerates loss of intelligence, loss of productive power, loss of the comforts of life, loss of virtue, loss of citizen- ship. loss of respectability, loss of happiness, loss of soul enough to sadden the heart and hopes of the Christian world."
From the annual reports of State Superintendent Wickersham the committee deduced the following facts: "Three-fourths of the youth sent to houses of refuge have never been at school or at- tended so little as to be equivalent in results to no attendance. In our almshouses are six paupers without schooling to one having some education. There are forty persons with none or but an indifferent education to one having a good education. In our jails there are two persons illiterate to one having some education. In our penitentiaries there are thirty persons with either none or but a poor education to one having a liberal education. By esti- mating five and a half months as the average school year and $1.50 as the average cost per month, and 100,000 as the number of children not partaking of school advantages, there is expended to no advantage each year in Pennsylvania at least three-quarters of a million dollars."
When compulsory attendance at school was first proposed at educational gatherings in Pennsylvania there arose much oppo- sition against the plan. It was argued that such legislation was
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un-American, and that optional attendance at schools was most befitting a free people. In like manner it was argued that com- pulsory attendance at school was an unwarranted interference with the rights of parents and employers, and that the State had no right to pass laws in restriction of the employment of children.
The compulsory law, enacted in 1891, was vetoed by Governor Pattison on the ground that it was defective in its provisions and might work most serious evil to the very cause it was intended to benefit. A similar bill was vetoed in 1893. Two years later, however, a more practical and comprehensive bill was passed by the legislature, and received executive approval under date of May 16, 1895.
In approving the act Governor Hastings said : "There appears to be throughout the Commonwealth a general desire for such a law. I have not received a single protest from any citizen against this bill, so far as I can recall. The unanimity with which it was passed by the legislature, as well as the large number of re- quests made upon me to sign it, clearly indicate the general desire on the part of the people for a compulsory education law. Under these conditions I am convinced that I should not obtrude any in- dividual judgment which I may have on this question of public policy. This measure provides for compulsory education in per- haps the least objectionable form to those who oppose it on prin- ciple, and offends as little against the personal rights of the citi- zen as possible. I, therefore, approve the bill, but if by experi- ence the expectations of the people are not realized, future legisla- tion doubtless will meet their demands."
The act of 1895 made attendance at school obligatory upon all children between eight and thirteen years. It imposed a fine upon the parent or guardian not exceeding two dollars upon first conviction for unnecessary absence of child or ward, and a fine not exceeding five dollars for each subsequent conviction. It provided for an enumeration of children and the employment of attendance officers. It did not interfere with the right of parents
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or guardians to send children to other than the public schools. It gave directors full power to excuse pupils for non-attendance and imposed no penalty if the school board failed to enforce the law. But its provisions were not found stringent enough to bring ail the children to school. therefore the law was amended at the next session of the legislature. The new act changed. the duration of compulsory attendance from sixteen weeks to seventy per cent. of the time in which the schools are in session in a given district. The age limit of compulsory attendance was extended to include
VIRTUE
INDEPENDENCE
Arms, 1820
persons from thirteen to sixteen years who were not regularly engaged in any useful employment or service. It provided that fines collected should be paid into the county treasury for the use of the school district. The act also made provision for plac- ing insubordinate children in special schools. It gave school boards the right to make an enumeration for the purpose of ob- taining more accurate lists than were furnished by the assessors. The act of June 14, 1897, forbade the employment after January I, 1898, of any minor under the age of sixteen years who could not read and write English, unless he should present a certificate of sixteen weeks' attendance during the preceding year at an even- ing or day school.
For the purpose of meeting contingencies not provided for in earlier legislation on compulsory education, and for the purpose of correcting defects in existing laws, the bill of 1901 was passed, repealing the former acts of 1895 and 1897. The provisions of the new act are more definite and more stringent than those of former acts, and especially so in providing for the disposi-
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tion of truant and incorrigible children in special schools. It im- poses penalties upon teachers, employers, parents, guardians, su- perintendents and secretaries of school boards for failure to com- ply with the law, and gives power to the State superintendent to withhold one-fourth of the State appropriation from any school district refusing or neglecting to enforce its provisions.
High Schools .- The act of 1836 gave the school controllers of Philadelphia authority to establish a Central High school. The school was organized in 1838 and was the first of its class in the United States outside of New England. Dr. Burrowes once prophesied that in due time high schools would be established at intervals of six miles throughout the State. This prediction has not been entirely fulfilled, yet high schools have been gradually established in all the leading cities and boroughs and in several of the larger townships. At first the courses of study were mapped out by the local authorities and were often shaped to suit the stan- dard of scholarship of the teachers in charge. Sometimes the high school curriculum comprised little more than advanced work in the common branches and the education they offered was little calculated to fit the pupils for practical life or to prepare them for admission to college.
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