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REYNOLDS HISTORICAL GENEALOGY COLLECTION
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ALLEN COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY 3 1833 01068 3719
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EARLY USES OF LAND IN RHODE ISLAND -
ERIC P. JACKSON, A.M.
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Etprinted from THE BULLETIN OF THE GHOSTKAPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA Vol. XIX, No. 2, March
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Jackson, Eric P.
. 45 Early uses of land in Rhode Island ... [Phil. ]n.d. 0.
Cover-title. Author's presentation copy. "Reprinted from 'The Bulletin of the Geographical society of Philadelphia, vol. XIX, no.2, March. " "References" : p. 30-31.
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EARLY USES OF LAND IN RHODE ISLAND
BY ERIC P. JACKSON, A.M.
University of Chicago
The purpose of this paper is to give a general resume of the historical aspects of land utilization in Rhode Island, especially of the early days preceding 1850. The use of land and particularly agricultural development are most intimately related to, and are influential in, the history of any region. Furthermore, a historical background aids in making a more successful interpretation of the present status and trend in the land utilization.
The history of agriculture and other less important forms of land ntilization shows several stages coinciding with the various periods of economic development. The transition in each case is a gradual one, and the successive periods from the early Indian agriculture through the colonial system of farming up to the pres- ent-day commercial agriculture show the interplay of the geographic factors of the region. Moreover, with the development of a more complex and higher state of civilization these factors change in the order of their predominance and are becoming perhaps even more important in determining the best use of the land as time goes on. At first thought the reverse might seem to be the case.
The early uses of land in Rhode Island, though typical in many respects of all southern New England, show certain interesting peculiarities. Both environmental and human facts are involved. The essential facts of the physiographic setting and of the soils of this little state are shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. In the use of the land four stages may well be recognized.
1. Early uses of land by the Indians.
2. Colonial farming in Old Narragansett.
3. The Age of Homespun.
4. The Agricultural Revolution.
Early Uses of Land by the Indians
When Rhode Island was settled in 1636 Roger Williams came to know the native Indians most intimately, and it is his Key to the Indian Language that is our best source of first-hand information. More recently, studies in anthropology have added to and organized the knowledge.
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
Fig. 3. shows the distribution of the various tribes throughout the State. It is a significant fact that the Narragansett Indians, the
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Noir- Glaciation was the chief agent in the shaping of the present land forms of the state. Glacial action and deposition (moraines) have greatly disarranged an original north-south drainage . system. This is especially noticeable in the southern part of the state. Ponds and swamps and ter- raced soils have resulted in the valley courses. In Western or Upland Rhode Island the badrock is mostly granite, and, although the elevation is not great, this section presents a very rugged appearance, with steep slopes and flat-topped bells covered with a thin soil. Following along the western side of Narragansett Bay a rather well-defined escarpment separates the upland from the Narragansett Lowland proper. Here is a structural basin of metamorphosed sediments where glacial action has not been so harsh. Hills do not exceed 250 it. in bright, and are smooth and rounded with easy slopes. Gently tolling and in some cases level glacial plains are particularly prominent at the head of the bay. This section comprises about one-third of the area of the set ..
dominant tribe, occupied the most fertile soils of the State, espe- cially the areas with a good, stony ham and the level stretches of
WESTERN
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Rhode Island's best silt loam in the vicinity of the Usquepang and Chipuxet Rivers ( Fig. 4 for place names). The Wampanoags o cupied the valley lands and glacial plains at the head of the bay
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. 2 Tht AREAS OF POOREST GENERAL SOIL (after R. M. Brown, in Jow. of Geog., Vol. 20, 1921, p. 46. Generalized from map of Soil Survey of Rhode Island, 1905)
Nont .- The stippled areas are for the most part infertile sandy loams the rugged uplands derived in part from the granite rock. Because of Excessive drainage of their stony character these soils are best suited to a st growth and to a less extent to upland pasturage. Many of the valley !. with their reworked glacial soils are fairly suitable for cultivation. In lowland the soils are for the most part typical glacial stony loams. When fuchs ate once cleared and built into stone walls these soils may be con- Fred as the best general types in the state. Other soil types, such as the til sand areas, are to be found.
No! were fertile. The Nianties held some comparatively fertile ads in the lower Paweatuck Valley, and the Nipmucs held the ripper valleys of the Branch River, which were largely areas of a
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
fairly fertile, stony loam. The Wampanoags were the most power- ful of the subservient tribes, with good lands as well as a very favorable location.
We find it hard to differentiate land utilization among them as among all primitive peoples. In their comparatively well-devel- oped agriculture, however, are to be found certain conditions that
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have influenced the subsequent influence of land utilization within the State, and certain responses to natural conditions that are simi- lar to present-day responses. The extent of seasonal nomadism within each tribal region was determined by the extent and location of their agricultural, hunting, and hshing grounds. They sought the sheltered, wooded valleys in winter, and in summer they planted their fields.
The native timber was used largely in the construction of their shelters, and for implements of various kinds. Rhode Island was
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Eric P. Jackson.
in the transition zone between the white pine and other conifers and mixed hardwoods of the north, and the deciduous hardwoods of the central section of the country. The supply of hardwoods and softwoods, as well as weeds and rushes, was practically unlim- ited. Wild nuts and fruits were used as a source of food-supply. There is no evidence that the Indians had any other domesticated animals than the dog, and consequently grazing did not exist pre- vious to the introduction of cattle by the colonists. Since hunting was one of their chief occupations, we find that animal skins were used for clothing and bedding, and in trading. The use of stone was extensive, particularly before the advent of the colonists, for utensils and weapons.
Agriculture was universal among all New England tribes. In well-cultivated gardens were grown corn, beans, pumpkins, squashes, artichokes, and tobacco. The modern improved varieties of these vegetables are but derivatives, and much of the same land is being used for the same crops today.
The methods of tillage and planting by these early peoples were remarkably well advanced. The clearing of the ground, the selecting and planting of the seed, and the care of the gardens all received careful attention. Each family had its garden, varying in size from one-half to one and one-half acres.
The corn (Zea mays) was the staple crop of the Indians, sev- eral varieties being grown. After being harvested by the women it was thoroughly dried and stored away in cache holes for future use.
We find, therefore, that the most important use of the land by the Indians was to replenish their food-supply. The primary geo- graphic factor in the rather extensive development of their agricul- ture was the climate. Proof of this is to be found in their primitive religion. Their greatest deity, Kautantoit, is described as "their great southwest god, to whose home all souls go. and from whom came their corn and beans." We see here the influence of the mild southwesterly breezes that prevail in the Narragansett country, espe- cially near Block Island Sound. Topography in part determined which areas could be used for cultivation and which sections were naturally left timbered and that constituted the natural hunting- : rounds. Soil fertility coukl not have been so important a factor as it has been more recently with the development of more intensive agriculture. The excellent conditions in the Kingston Plain area may have had some influence in the predominance of the Narragan- 4. 11 tribes.
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
Colonial Farming in Rhode Island
The friendly policy adopted toward the Indians hy Roger Will- iams was largely responsible for the early prosperity of the colony. With this condition of affairs it is natural and obvious that the colonists should have adapted themselves to the natural conditions to some extent, in the same manner as the natives. Especially were Indian methods of agriculture adopted. Indian corn and tobacco soon became prominent agricultural products.
The seventeenth century was a period of settlement and adjust- ment of political difficulties. Conflict with the Indians became inevitable with expansion, and in the "Great Swamp Fight" near Kingston in 1675 the Narragansetts were completely crushed. The chief settlements were grouped around Providence and Warwick on the mainland and Newport and Portsmouth on the island of Rhode Island (Fig. 4). The latter developed an aristocratic, flour- ishing and refined life, while the mainland remained poor, primitive and plebeian. "The people of Providence still pastured their cattle and horses, and turned loose their depredating swine," whereas "at Newport sheep and horses were bred."* This was the age of Roger Williams.
After 1660 the relative limitations of an agricultural existence began to be ameliorated at Newport by the beginnings of a com- mercial development. From an economic and social viewpoint the period from 1690 to 1763 was one of co-operation due to commerce. It was the period of Rhode Island's great activity on the sea, the wonderful privateering that led to an American Navy. It was the "Golden Age" of Newport, with wealth pouring in from the West Indies.
In contrast to this mercantile development there grew up in the Narragansett country on the mainland a landed aristocracy that derived its wealth from the soil. These Narragansett planters were unique among New England aristocrats, and from the point of view of land utilization a description of the life of Old Narragansett will not be amiss.
The Narragansett country ( formerly called the King's Prov- ince) comprised that part of Rhode Island lying west of Narragan- sett Bay and south of the Warwick line. It included particularly the west shore of Narragansett Bay from Wickford to Point Judith. The settlement was effected by land companies which controlled
* J. B RI OMAS, RI : Ild- 1 Study in Separatism, p. 60.
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between them the strip of land two to four miles wide, extending from Wickford south along the bay and west along the sea-coast to the mouth of the Pawcatuck River.
Undoubtedly the most potent factor in the growth of this land
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NoTE-The present town boundaries are shown and abbreviations used in some cases, as follows: B, Burrillville: Br., Bristol; C, Central Falls ; Co Coventry; Cr., Cranston; Cu., ( umberland: E.G. East Greenwich ; E Pr., East Providence : Ex., Exeter : F., Foster ; GL, Gloucester ; 11., Hop- kinton; J., Johnston; Ja., Jamestown; L., Lincoln; L.C., Little Compton : NS., North Smithfield; N.P., Narragansett Pier ; N.Pr., North Providence : Pawt., Pawtucket; R., Richmond; S., Smithfield; Sc., Scituate; T., Tiver- ton; W., Warren; W.G., West Greenwich; Woon., Woonsocket.
system was the physical environment of the settlers in the King's Province. This region, especially that section just north of the ground moraine area, was remarkable for its fertility in a region otherwise stony and barren (Fig. 1). This country, together with
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
the island of Rhode Island, has been called one of the garden spots of stony New England. Here had been the stronghold of the Nar- ragansett Indians. It included the so-called Kingston Plain area with its fertile silt loam.
The difficulties of the early settlers as to fences were greatly lessened by the presence of large salt-water ponds or lagoons which separated very effectually the cornfields and pastures of the various owners. Stock farming on a large scale was favored by good herb- age for grazing.
These conditions soon had their effect. After corn and tobacco the chief crop was grass. Sheep were raised in large quantities, and dairy cattle furnished butter and cheese -- the latter being a reproduction of the famous Cheshire article in England. Horses were raised for export, and a particular breed, the Narragansett pacer, was developed.
The individual estates were kept large for many years. Major Mason, of Connecticut, in 1670 described the holdings as "five, six. and ten miles square." The lands were approached from the old Pequot Path (Post Road) and comprised from two thousand to twelve thousand acres per owner.
The dwellings were large, with grambrel roofs, low, beam- traversed ceilings, and great fireplaces. Negro slaves were the sery- ants, and their quarters were situated in the spacious attics. In spite of the fact that there was no simple staple product, like tobacco in Virginia, yet there grew up social customs almost exactly like those of the South.
Literature, the arts, and the higher forms of pleasure were patronized by all the gentry of Narragansett, and there existed a strong religious background of Quakerism and Anglicanism.
Special mention must be made here of Rhode Island cornmeal. which since the days of the Indians had been a well-known product of the southern part of the state. In many parts of the country do we find such epicurean traditions. There are the hoecakes and hominy of the South, the brown bread of Boston, the hasty pudding of Connecticut, and the mush of Pennsylvania, but "none of these reputed luxuries are worthy of holding a candle to an old-fashioned Narragansett johnny-cake made by an old-time Narragansett cook, from Indian cornmeal raised on the southern coast of Rhode Island, the fabled Atlantis, where alone the soft. balmy breezes from the Gulf Stream ever fan the celestial plant in its growth and impart
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Eric P. Jackson.
to the grain that genial softness, that tempting fragrance and deli- cious flavor, that caused the Greeks of old to bestow upon Narra- gansett cornmeal the name of Ambrosia, imagining it to be a food originally designed and set apart by the gods exclusively for their own delectation." The meal grown in the south counties of Rhode Island is a soft-feeling, fine, flat meal, ground from a white, foury corn in Rhode Island granite mills.
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(Photo by the Author)
FIG. 5-RUINS OF AN OLD MILL, EAST GLOUCESTER, R. I.
Some of the old machinery and timbers, and a sluice-way opening are evident. Not far away on the edge of a field were the original upper and nether millstones, fashioned out of large blocks of granite and used for grinding the grist that came to the mill in the old days. At a later time a saw mill was erected on this same spot.
The existence of this plantation system of landholding was undoubtedly dependent upon slavery. In. 1750 there were about 1,000 negroes in Old Narragansett, a proportion of one to every two or three white men. It is a significant fact that even today there is a greater percentage of negroes in Rhode Island than in any other New England state. The decline of slavery and the subsequent decline of the plantation system in Rhode Island were due primarily to changing economic conditions. The life of Old
* T. R. HAZARD, Johnny Cake Papers, First Baking, pp. 17-18.
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
Narragansett was "based upon agriculture, the agriculture not of the ordinary and particularistic sort. It rather was a part of that eighteenth century co-operative and commercial movement of which Newport ( though less wealthy than South Kingstown) was at once the inlet, the outlet, and the heart."
After 1750 certain definite changes began to take place within Rhode Island. The next fifty years were marked by gradual uni- fication and constitutional development. Providence soon grew out of its colonial and agricultural status and became both a political and commercial challenge to Newport. By 1774 slavery was abol- ished and many of the estates of the wealthy loyalists of New- port and Narragansett were confiscated or divided. It may well be said that the eighteenth century in Rhode Island was a period of co-operation due to commerce, centering around Narragansett Bay.
Following the days and trials of the Revolution commerce declined, and the importance of Newport in consequence diminished. We find at this time the beginning of the cotton industry. With the establishment of manufacturing there inevitably came a unifica- tion and a readjustment of the population, owing to the growth of an artisan class. A more detailed account of rural conditions of southern New England at the beginning of the nineteenth century will give a better idea as to how the use of the land was related to the changing economic conditions and as to the kinds of use the land was put to.
The Age of Homespun-a Period of Transition
The two generations from 1810 to the close of the Civil War were a period of transition to commercial agriculture, stimulated by the rise of manufacturing enterprises in inland towns and vil- lages, and the demand for food and materials for the non-agricul- tural population.
Only in the case of a few industries do we find much of a sepa- ration of employments. Most of the articles manufactured during this period were produced either on the farms for family consump- tion or by village artisans for local demand. The homespun cloth. soap, candles, etc., are examples of the former; and the products of the tannery, the grist mill, and the saw mill are typical of the latter. In the woolen and cotton industries and in the iron and shoe industries we find the workers much more independent of the soil, although factory methods had not as yet been introduced.
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Likewise in the coast and river towns we find but little differ- entiation between the maritime industries and agriculture. Only in a few places in southern New England, where the soil is sandy and sterile, was complete dependence placed on trading and fishing. In only a few seaport towns was there a non-agricultural population that purchased products from the inland farmers. Owing to the inadequate transportation development the commercial towns drew
(Photo by the Author)
FIG. 6-ONE OF RHODE ISLAND'S ABANDONED FARMS
Situated on Escobeag Hill (540 feet) in West Greenwich in the wildest and most rugged part of the state. It commands an extensive view of the surrounding country and in its better days was a fine old homestead. Now it is deserted, though occasionally it is used as a hay barn. The okt fam- ily burial ground is nearby, a very characteristic thing in Rhode Island that reflects in some measure the intense individualism and separatism of the people.
products only from adjoining or nearby towns. Navigable streams may have extended this range in some areas.
Another feature of economic importance is the market, both external and internal, for the farmer's products. Outside of New England three districts purchased foodstuffs from the farmers of southern New England, namely, (1) the city of New York; (2) regions of specialized agriculture in the Southern States; and (3)
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
the West Indies. Owing to a dense population, a specialized prod- uct, sugar, and the absence of hinterland with general agriculture, the West Indian market became the most important. The figures for the export of the principal grains, 1791-92, for the three states in this region are:$
State Wheat
Massachusetts
154 bu.
Corn 78,000 bu.
Rye 1,600 bu.
Connecticut
36,000 bu.
Rhode Island
438 bu. 5,100 bu.
That this trade was mainly with the coast towns and only slightly affected the inland farmer is evident when we consider the conditions of the inland transportation system. Rhode Island boasted of no navigable rivers comparable to the Connecticut and the Merrimac, and this factor tended to restrict the trade to the vicinity of Narragansett Bay. Other factors in the isolation of the inland towns were:
1. Poor management of roads and highways due to lack of uniform management.
2. Lack of a plan in laying out roads.
3. Primitive means of conveyance.
4. The failure of the turnpike roads to solve permanently the problem of quick and cheap transportation.
Having in mind the reasons for the commercial isolation of the inland towns we will examine the agricultural industry in more detail.
Although 90 per cent of the population at this period depended upon agriculture, yet very little improvement had been made over the primitive methods of the early settlers. New methods of hus- bandry had been worked out in England, but the farmers of New England seemed loath to accept them. Their fields and livestock were neglected. implements were crude, and the land was exhaust- ively cropped.
The typical inland farm, consisting of from one to two hun- dred acres, was ordinarily divided into three equal tracts :
1. Woodland (including wasteland).
2. l'asturage.
3. Mowing land and cultivated fields (in varying pro- portions ).
* TENCH COX, A Piece of the United States of America, p. 414. London, 1791.
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The plowed and tilled fields, consisting of about ten or twelve acres, were separated by rail fences or stone walls.
Of the crops grown, Indian corn and rye were the staple grains. These two mixed formed the common bread of the people, and their beef, pork, and poultry were fattened on corn. Under the self- sufficing system of agriculture small amounts of oats, barley, and buckwheat had to be grown, although the first two were recognized as poor crops.
Bad management, plant diseases, moist conditions, and the sandy nature of the soil caused disappointing results in wheat cul- tivation, except in a few favored regions in New England, none of which was located in Rhode Island.
There was a great lack of root crops, although the potato and pumpkin were grown to a certain extent. Hay remained the chief winter fodder for cattle. Although flax required a considerable amount of labor and a certain type of fertilization, yet a small field was usually sown to provide material for the homespan linen. Except near the commercial towns, the intensive gardening of vege- tables was not practiced. Grazing was of more importance in the New England region than agriculture, and consequently more atten- tion was paid to grass and grain crops.
Although many of the farmers were making an honest effort to effect a more beneficial alternation of crops, yet there was little progress made in the matter of crop rotation because of their lim- ited knowledge. Then, too, there was the necessity of producing under any conditions such crops as corn, rye, grass, and flax.
It is a surprising fact that we find most of the farmers neglect- ing the use of a resource that they had right at hand for helping to restore the fertility of their mismanaged soils, namely, the barn- yard and stable manure. This is directly traceable, however, to the lack of a market for their agricultural products and the lack of a stimulus to produce more than they needed for their own consump- tion. Nearer the coast and in the more fertile regions, gypsum, fish. and seaweed were occasionally used. Today seaweed is regularly gathered by the Block Island farmers and spread over plowed fields in the autunin.
Another result of this lack of a market was the small invest- ment in permanent improvements, such as buildings, tools and imple- ments, and means of transportation. Old-time implements, such as the sickle, the scythe, and cradle were used for reaping wheat
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Early Uses of Land in Rhode Island.
and cutting grain. The ploughs and harrows were crude in nature and oxcarts were the only means of transportation except in winter.
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