USA > Iowa > Buchanan County > History of Buchanan County, Iowa, with illustrations and biographical sketches > Part 7
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For the description which follows we are indebted, in part, to an article in the American Encyclopedia, but still more to an article by Mr. C. W. Irish on the Gov- ernment Surveys of Public lands, published as an appen- dix to Dr. C. A. White's Report on the Geological sur- vey of the State of lowa. We have adopted the lan- guage of each of these articles, whenever it has suited our purpose; but changes and additions are so frequent that we have not thought it worth while to disfigure the page by the constant use of quotation marks. Some of the changes alluded to are rendered absolutely necessary in order to render the description intelligible without the very instructive figures which accompany Mr. Irish's article. And some of the additions are made for the purpose of showing the relation of Buchanan county to the base, meridian and correction lines. But, of course, the most of the present section was only a general refer- ence to the county.
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HISTORY OF BUCHANAN COUNTY, IOWA.
The practice of the "Mother Country," says Mr. Irish, in the manner of dealing in lands which she saw fit to "sell and convey" to individuals, in the shape of "grants," was initiated by the colonies, and afterwards by the States. These grants had no definite shape, but were of all sizes and bounded in all manner of ways. The boundary lines were made to conform to the windings of any stream that happened to be favorably situated; and in the absence of such convenience, the track of an ancient highway, or any other landmark, natural or arti- ficial, was taken as a boundary. The courses of the boundary lines were magnetic, that is to say, the angles or bearings of the lines were referred to the magnetic meridian for direction. This system of surveying by magnetic bearings had its origin at a time when the belief was general that the direction of the magnetic meridian, or, if you please, the direction of the compass needle, was invariable. This, however, is not the case. The direction of the needle is constantly changing; and as a consequence the magnetic bearing of to-day from one given point to another, will not be the bearing between the same points next year. Thus the attempt to fix the boundaries of a tract of land by the use of such variable means as those above described, resulted in assigning variable boundaries, and consequently pro- duced much perplexity and vexatious litigation.
We have been informed that the Government is indebted to General William Henry Harrison, afterward President of the United States, for the convenient ingen- uous, yet very simple method of land surveys which is now in use, and which, for the past fifty years or more, has taken the place of the old and cumbrous method introduced by the English surveyors. Whether this credit is really due to President Harrison or not we cannot say: since neither of the articles above named contains any allusion to the matter; and none of the authorities that we have been able to consult, throws any light upon the question. But, whoever he was, the man that con- ceived the idea, involving the principles of the present system of United States surveys, was indeed a public benefactor, as well as a thorough scholar; for he brought order out of the chaos of perplexities and vexations involved in the plan of surveying just described. In doing this he laid astronomy, mathematics, and mechan- ics under contribution ; and, at the same time that he gave to the United States a regular system of surveying, at once accurate and simple, his plan for getting the direction of the lines used in bounding the lands sur- veyed, necessitated the invention of a new surveying instrument, the solar compass, the most accurate kind of a compass used by surveyors. This new plan adopted by the United States Government, has for its basis the invariable direction of the true meridians. All bearings taken from these meridians are called true bearings, to distinguish them from magnetic bearings; and in their direction are invariable as is the meridian from which they are measured.
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The parallels of latitude are also used in the new system, as a basis from which to measure distances. Consequently the United system of public surveys, con-
sists in the use of the true meridians from which to get directions or bearings, and the parallels of latitude from which to measure distances. It is called a rectan- gular system-that is, all its distances and bearings are measured from two lines which are at right angles to each other ; the two lines or bases being always a true meridian, and a true parallel of latitude.
The principal lines used in government surveys are five in number, and are called, in the order of their establishment, base lines, principal meridians, township lines, section lines, and correction lines. There are several other lines used, but they are of interest only to surveyors, and do not properly come within the limits of this explanation.
By the rule, all north and south lines must be run upon true meridians, and all east and west lines upon true parallels of latitude. In locating the base (or east and west) lines, and the meridians (or north and south lines), which is the first step in a government survey, the initial point, or the place from which the lines start, is generally located at or near some natural landmark, merely for the purpose of ready identification. But the position of the starting point does not depend upon the invariability of such landmark for its stability. For in case of the removal of the landmark, the starting point can be readily identified by its latitude and longitude, and the reference marks made near it. Hence the land- mark, be it the mouth of a river or the top of a moun- tain, is merely a reference point; but, whatever point is chosen, the base line and the meridian start from that point-the base running east and west, and the meridian north and south.
The Government has established certain lines whose intersections are to be regarded as starting points in all government surveys. These lines are called principal meridians and principal base lines. There is, of course, no absolute necessity of establishing more than one mer- idian and one base, since all surveys could be reckoned from the intersection of two such lines. But, if only one starting point were used in all the United States, the number of ranges-or rows of six miles squares, extend- ing north and south of that point-and of townships or rows east and west, would soon become inconveniently large. Therefore several meridian and base lines have been established by the Government. Of the meridians thus established there were, in 1875, as stated in the American Encyclopædia, twenty-four. Six of these, be- ginning with the one furthest toward the east, are num- bered, first, second, etc. The other eighteen have special names, but all are designated by their longitude. The first meridian is the boundary line between Ohio and Indiana, longitude eighty-four degrees fifty-one minutes west from Greenwich; and the one further to the west passes through Humboldt, Nevada, longitude one hun- dred and twenty-four degrees, eleven minutes.
The number of principal base lines which had been established at the date above mentioned, were twenty- one-the northernmost being in latitude forty-five degrees forty-six minutes twenty-seven seconds, which is about the latitude of Minneapolis; and the southernmost, in
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HISTORY OF BUCHANAN COUNTY, IOWA.
latitude thirty, twenty-five minutes, which is that of Tal- lahassee, Florida.
The meridian from which the Iowa surveys are reck- oned, is that which passes through the mouth of the Arkansas river, in the State of Arkansas-being the same as longitude ninety degrees fifty-one minutes. This is the fifth principal meridian, which, being extended north, passes through the eastern part of Iowa, about twelve miles west of Dubuque.
The principal base line, from which also our surveys are reckoned, is the parallel which passes through the mouth of the St. Francis river, in Arkansas-about thirty-four degrees, thirty minutes-a little south of the line dividing the States of Mississippi and Tennessee.
The mouth of the St. Francis is about thirty miles east of the meridian line passing through the mouth of the Ar- kansas; and the base line drawn west from the former point, crosses that principal meridian forty-eight miles north of its starting point. The point at which these two lines cross each other is the one from which the Iowa surveys are numbered. And as our southernmost tier of townships is numbered sixty-eight, there are sixty- seven townships or four hundred and two miles from the principal base to the line of Iowa's southern boundary.
After the establishment of the base line and meridian, they are measured into half-mile, mile and six-mile spaces, which are respectively the sides of quarter- sections, sections and townships. The points at the ends of these divisions are well marked, that they may be identified and distinguished from each other years after, and serve as starting points of other surveys.
The next step in the process is to divide the country lying along these lines in spaces six miles square. This is called townshipping the land; and all the townships thus formed begin at the end of the six-mile spaces, on the base and meridian, and are run parallel to these two guides.
The law establishing this system, while it required that the north and south lines should be run on true meridi. ans, also required that each of the townships should be six miles square. Exactly to satisfy both these require_ ments is manifestly impossible. It is well known that the meridians of the earth are not parallel to each other ; for they begin at the equator, with a definite width be- tween them-say sixty-nine and a half miles to a degree -- and gradually converge until they meet in the poles. Now, these north and south township lines, being run on true meridians, as a matter of course must converge ; and in consequence the north side of a township must be less in width than its south side. This is not the case with the east and west lines, for they being run on true paral- lels of latitude do not converge, but remain at equal distances from each other, however far from the merid- ian they may be traced. Then, for the want of parallel- ism between the east and west sides of the townships, an allowance must be made, as it amounts to about forty- three feet to the township, between the parallels of forty-one degrees and forty-two degrees north latitude. That is to say, the north side of a township, between forty-one degrees and forty-two degrees of latitude,
measures forty-three feet less than its south side. This is partly allowed for by the use of "correction lines" which are new basis run for about every tenth township, parallel to the principal base. Upon each of these new basis the half-mile, mile and six-mile points are again established, and from these points a new set of north lines are measured.
Surveyors have been instructed that each range of township should be made as much over six miles in width, on each base and correction line, as it will fall short of the same width where it closes on to the next correction line north : And it is further provided that, in all cases where the exterior lines of the townships shall exceed or shall not extend, six miles, the excess or de- ficiency shall be specially noted and added to, or deducted from, the western or northern sections or half sections in such township, according as the error may be in running the lines from east to west or from south to north. In order to throw the excesses or deficiencies on the north and on the west sides of the township, it is necessary to survey the section lines from south to north on a true meridian, leaving the result in the north line of the township to be governed by the convexity of the earth and the convergency of the meridians.
There are two correction lines in Iowa, the second or upper one passing through the centre of Buchanan county, and constituting the southern boundary of the townships Perry, Washington (as originally constituted) Byron and Fremont.
Theoretically the townships are all six miles square, and divided by lines running parallel with their sides into thirty-six equal parts called sections. The dividing lines being one mile apart each way, the sections are, of course, one mile square and contain six hundred and forty acres. The sections are always numbered from one to thirty-six in regular order, beginning with the one in the northeast corner, from thence to the west, thence back to the east and so on-the southeast corner section being always numbered thirty-six. The lines bounding each section are called "section lines," to distinguish them from the other lines used in the survey. They are marked at the corners of each section by what are called "section corners."
In subdividing a township, the measurement begins at the northwest corner of section thirty-six, and progresses northward and westward. This proceeding throws all the errors of measurement (as we have seen) into the lines adjoining the north and west sides of the townships, giving what are called "anomalous sections " -- they being either greater or less than one mile square, by the amount of the error of measurement. These anomalons sections, being on the north and west sides of the town- ship, are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 18, 19, 30 and 31. The rest of the sections in a township are taken to be one mile square.
The government makes no smaller subdivision than forty acres (the fourth of a quarter-section) except where errors of measurement produce such a result, in the anomalous sections.
Before concluding this brief, and necessarily imper-
5
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HISTORY OF BUCHANAN COUNTY, IOWA.
fect, account of the manner of making government surveys, it may be well to explain the different kinds of corners used in running the various lines. They are the "Initial Monument," "Township Corners," "Section Corners," and "One-fourth Section Corners," each having its own peculiar marks.
Township corners, when located in timbered lands, are marked by a post. This post is about five inches square, and set in the ground so as to project above the surface about three feet. The corners of the post are set to the north, south, east and west, each corner having six notches cut in it, that being the number of miles, in each direction, to the next township corner. Two trees are then marked with a blaze facing the post- the bear- ing and distance of each from the post being taken and put in the notes. If the township corner is located in an open field, with no timber near. A post is set as above described, and a mound of earth, three feet high, having a base, five feet square, and the top, two feet square, is raised around it. The earth for this mound is taken from two pits, one to the north, the other to the south of the mound. They are square in shape, and, like the mound, have their four corners directed to the north, south, east and west.
Section corners, in a timbered tract, are marked by a post, three inches square, and two feet high. The corners of the post are set to the cardinal points, the same as township posts; but the corners are notched so as to show the number of miles which the post stands from the township lines next north, south, east and west of it. The position of the post is also marked by two trees, as described for a township corner. In open ground, with no timber near, the section corner is marked by a post, as above described, and also by a mound of earth. The pit from which the earth to form a section corner is taken, is situated on the south side of the mound, at a distance somewhat less than that in the case of a township corner. The mound is also less in size than a township corner mound, being at the base four feet square, and two and a half feet high.
The post for a quarter section corner is only flattened on two opposite sides, and, in timber, its position is denoted by two bearing trees, and on open ground the corner is marked by a pit and mound of the size used in marking a section corner. The position of the pit differs from that used in marking a section corner, by being placed to the east of the mound. Its distance from the mound, however, is the same as the pit from a section corner mound.
Upon the sides of the stakes used in marking a town- ship corner will be found the numbers representing the adjacent townships. Upon the section corner stake will be found the numbers of the adjoining sections; while upon the quarter-section stake is marked simply "14 S."
By the method of surveying thus imperfectly set forth, a piece of land however situated within the bounds of the United States surveys, can be referred to and de- scribed with the greatest certainty, and its dimensions, or area in square miles or acres, be ascertained with all the precision that the skill of the surveyor will warrant.
And further, the manner in which the boundaries are marked and perpetuated, is such as to make the lines es- tablished as immutable as the earth itself.
FLORA AND FAUNA.
We have neither the space, nor time, nor ability, to give an exhaustive account of the flora and fauna of Buchanan county; but a description of its physical features would be imperfect, without at least some general notices of both. We will therefore give, in a desultory manner, such a description of them as we may be able, relying partly upon our own study and observa- tion, partly upon the accounts of early settlers, and partly upon published scientific reports.
One of the most obvious reflections in regard to this subject, relates to the changes which have been produced, both in the flora and fauna of this county (as of all other newly settled regions), by the advent of civilized man. These changes, which were quite unavoidable, have put a new face upon almost every landscape. Hundreds of vegetable species, and very many (though doubtless a smaller number) of animal species, have become the constant attendants of man in his improved condition, and follow him in all his migrations. The most of these (as the food plants and the domestic animals) he carries with him, by design and of necessity, for the supply of his various wants. A few (as certain song birds and flowering plants) become his voluntary but welcome at- tendants, and are never found remote from his dwellings, which they cheer and gladden by their melody and beauty. But many other (such as noxious weeds and pestiferous vermin) throng about his pathways and homes, and follow him with a sort of impish persistence, in spite of all his efforts to shake them off.
There is in these facts much that is mysterious, much that is touching, and almost pathetic; and not a little that is very humiliating and vexatious. Along the village streets and country roads, and about dwellings, in gardens or uncultivated places, may be found almost everywhere throughout the county, the following, among other im- migrating plants: The velvet leaf, or abutilon avicen- næ; two or three species of mallow; the Jamestown weed, or datura stramonium; several species of poly- gonum, especially those called lady's thumb, and smart weed; soapwort or bouncing bet; mag weed, or ma- ruta cotula; several species of plantago, or common plantain; stellaria, or chickweed; linaria, or toad flax; purslane, or portulaca oleracea (of which Henry Ward Beecher said, in one of his sermons, that he had often ejected it from his garden "with maledictions"- though what right he had to curse an innocent plant, simply because it has a troublesome way of dying hard, he has not yet informed the world); shepherd's purse capsella bursa-pastoris) and other members of the crucifera, or mustard family; burdock, or lappa major, which has a most clinging affection for colts' tails; stickseed and beggar's lice-species of echinospermum, which the amiable botanist, Professor Gray, calls "a vile weed:" bur-marigold, or bidens frondosa, which the children call pitchforks; and (where there is too much
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HISTORY OF BUCHANAN COUNTY, IOWA.
sand for decent plants to grow) the sand-bui, burgrass, or cenchrus tribuloides, which means, very appropriately, thistle hedgehog, and which is the special tribulation of barefooted boys and lady pedestrians.
None of these plants are indigenous in this county. The first settlers found none of them on the prairies or in the groves. They thought they had left them all be- hind; but when they had got their houses built, their gardens made, and their roads laid out, they awoke one morning to find them all here. How they came nobody knows. The settlers would have been very glad to keep the most of them away-though the chickweed, plan- tain, knotgrass, and other humble and harmless little weeds, so familiar in the olden times, did look natural and friendly about the doorstep. As for the plants themselves, they were all very much at home. They seemed to say: "Thank you for getting things ready for us. We have taken possession, and have come to stay. Get rid of us if you can."
Of the animals which accompanied the early settlers in the same unbidden and unceremonious fashion, the birds that chirp or twitter or sing about the houses and barns, and enliven the meadows with their beauty and melody, are always welcome; notwithstanding the depre- dations which a few of them make upon the fruit trees. Among these we may enumerate the robin, the blue-jay, the house-wren, the song-sparrow, the blue-bird, the ori- ole, the swallow, the martin, the meadow-lark and the bobolink, the finest of American songsters. Of these the blue-jay is the only one who braves the severity of Buchanan winters; and this constancy, together with his gay and beautiful plumage, is more than a compensation for his harsh voice-though even he has, occasionally, a sort of sotto voce warble which is by no means unmusical. The instinct which leads these and other species to make their abode about human dwellings, is not only interest- ing, but wonderful. Some of them do it, probably, be- cause they can find their food more readily there; others because they are more safe from the attacks of hostile species ; while with some (or all) both these reasons may have an influence. But it seems still more wonderful that species which, for the most part, live remote from the abodes of men, and are reckoned the most timid and difficult to tame, occasionally manifest the same sort of confidence in their civilized neighbors. The shy lit- tle quail, regardless of the missles of boys and the guns of older people, are frequently seen around our village streets; and the brown rabbits, certainly the most timid and untamable of our native quadrupeds, sometimes brave not only these enemies, but their still more dan- gerous foes, the dogs and the cats, by making their bur- rows and rearing their young in our very door-yards; and yet, so secretive are they that they are seldom discov- ered.
Of the more unwelcome species that followed the early settlers to their western homes, are the rats and mice and the various insects that prey upon their culti- vated fruits, garden vegetables and grains. That almost every plant necessary or desirable for the use of man, should have its peculiar insect enemy, often becoming a
sort of epidemic, bringing poverty and distress upon extensive agricultural districts by the total destruction of some vegetable product largely depended upon for the support of the people, is certainly a very great mystery. The believer in Divine Providence and revelation can hardly fail to see in this a proof of the reality of the primal curse pronounced upon nature, as a penalty for man's apostasy. But what a blow human pride must experience whenever it is brought face to face with the fact that, with all his boasted ingenuity, it is found utter- ly impossible to exterminate one of these pests ! Scien- tific societies and legislative bodies busy themselves anxiously with projects for obviating the plague of grass- hoppers. Prizes are offered, and the money paid for costly inventions, having that object in view. But the plague comes and goes; and when it comes again, it finds them as unprepared as they were before. But if it be thought less surprising that so small a creature, prop- agating itself in such inconceivable numbers, and, for the most part, in places so remote from those in which it commits its worst depredations, and spreading with such rapidity over large districts of country-if, I say, it be thought less surprising that such a creature should escape extermination by any means that man can devise, who can avoid a feeling of surprise, mingled with humil- iation (and perhaps just a trace of indignation), when he contemplates the apparent impossibility of getting rid of rats ? Here is an animal of comparatively large size, propagating itself slowly (when compared with insects) and always in the immediate locality of its depredations, and surrounded by all sorts of destructive agents. Against this animal man wages a ceaseless and relentless warfare, exhausting his inventive genius in the production of all sorts of traps and guns and deadly poisons, and even allying himself with other hostile species, such as cats, ferrets and terriers, whose hatred of race and power of de- struction have been sharpened by ages of careful and inge- nious training ; but all to no purpose. Many individuals have been killed-though not all on the side of the com- mon enemy, for thousands of human beings have been de- stroyed by rats-but the species thrives and manifests no symptoms of approaching extermination. It multi- plies quite as fast as man, and follows him, with a sort of sarcastic fidelity, in all his wanderings, both by sea and land; and seems to repeat, with ironical emphasis, the affectionate words of Ruth to Naomi: "Whither thou goest I will go, and where thou lodgest I will lodge. Where thou diest will I die, and there will I be buried." Man may as well give up all idea of success in his efforts to exterminate the rats; and may think himself fortunate if he is able to construct a cellar or a granary which the cunning and persistent rodents are not able to get into.
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