USA > Indiana > Johnson County > The people's guide, a business, political and religious directory of Johnson Co., Ind. together with a collection of very important documents and statistics connected with our moral, political and scientific history; also, a historical sketch of Johnson County > Part 9
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But granting the vegetable origin of coal, the question im- mediately suggests itself: Under what circumstances could so great an amount of vegetable matter have ever accumu- lated ?- the magnitude of which may be realized in a degree, from the asserted fact "that all the forests of the United States, if gathered into one heap, would fail to furnish the ma- terials of a single coal seam equal to that of Pittsburg, Penn."
Furthermore, coal is found stratified, laminated, and ex- tended, in horizontal beds, which often cover very large areas, with a nearly constant thickness-the great Pittsburg coal seam, above referred to for example, having a nearly uniform thickness of from eight to twelve feet, and is estimated to have once covered a surface of 90,000 square miles. Coal, moreover, is ordinarily encased between beds of shale or sandstone, which bear evident proof of having been slowly deposited iu quiet waters. In some coal fields, as many as seventy seams of coal, varying in thickness from a few inches to four, six, eight, ten, twelve, and twenty feet, occur thus in- terstratified with shales and sandstones; and yet, notwith- standing these frequent alternations of material, the purity of the coal is such, that it rarely contains any considerable ad- mixture of mud, sand, or other foreign mineral substances.
In explanation of these phenomena, various hypotheses have been suggested, but the general opinion of the best ge- ologists of the present day is, that the vegetable matter con- stituting coal, must, in the main, have grown and accumu- lated in immense jungles and peat mosses for many years ; that the land must have then sunk, and become the basin of a lake or estuary, into which rivers carried mud and sand ; these, covering the vegetable matter, gradually consolidated into shales and sandstones, while the vegetable matter itself un- derwent the process of mineralization, and was converted into
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coal. This being done, it is supposed that the area of deposit was again elevated, so as to become once more the scene of luxuriant vegetation ; then again submerged, and overlaid by new depr of sandstone and shale; then once more elevated
and cor with plants, and again submerged; and these al- ternat* of submergence and elevations are presumed to have en place as often as there are beds of coal in any par- ticular coal field .- Well's Illustrated Geology.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS ERA.
There is one circumstance in connection with the formation of coal which has given rise to a vast amount of ingenious speculation and hypotheses, viz: the apparent sameness of external conditions over such extensive areas of the earth as are now occupied by our known coal fields. Thus, the same gigantic ferns and club-mosses are found alike in the coal fields of America, Europe, Melville Island, Greenland, and Australia-regions widely separated, and at once tropical, temperate, and frigid. To account for this luxuriance and homogeneity of vegetable growth various causes have been suggested, as the earth's central heat, a change in the earth's axis, a larger percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, the planetary system moving through warmer regions of space, and the like; but thus far geologists have arrived at no definite conclusions on the subject.
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Deposits of carbonaceous matter have occurred at almost every period of the earth's history, as is evidenced by the fact that thin seams of coal aro found in almost all the geological systems; but the coal beds which admit of economical work- ing are almost exclusively confined to the carboniferous sys- tem. The only exceptions are a few coal fields belonging to the Oolitic or Jurassic system, which, in Virginia and some other localities, admit of profitable mining. It seems, there- fore, certain, that whatever may have been the conditions which allowed of so abundant a terrestrial vegetation at this particular epoch of the earth's history, those conditions ceased about the time when the era of the Carboniferous system ter- minated. A high temperature was evidently not one of these conditions, for there are evidences of it afterwards; and some authorities incline to the belief that the superabundance of carbonic acid gas, which is supposed to have existed during
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this era, was expended before its close. "There can be no doubt that the infusion of a large amount of this gas into the atmosphere at the present day would be attended by precisely the same circumstances as in the time of the coal epoch. The higher forms of animal life would not have a place on earth. Vegetation would be enormous; and coal strata would be formed from the vast accumulations of woody matter, which would gather in every favorable locality."
DISTRIBUTION OF COAL.
Coal is very widely distributed over the world, although some countries are more highly favored than others. Avail- able coal fields occur in Great Britain ; in Spain, France, Bel- gium and Middle Europe; in India, China and Japan ; in the islands of the Indian Archipelago; in Australia and New Zealand; in South America, Chili and Peru; in Greenland, Melville Island and in British America. But nowhere is the coal formation more extensively displayed than in the United States, and nowhere are its beds of greater thickness, more convenient for working, or of more valuable quality.
The eastern half of the continent of North America exhibits five great coal fields, extending from Newfoundland to Arkan. sas : 1. The first, or most eastern, is that of the British Prov- inces, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Its area is probably about 9,000 square miles, though only one tenth of this surface appears to be underlaid by productive coal seams. 2. The second, or Great Appalachian coal field, extends from Pennsylvania and Ohio to near Tuscaloosa, in the interior of Alabama. It is about 875 miles long, and is es- timated to contain 70,000 square miles. 3. A third, and smaller coal field, occupies the center of the State of Michi- gan ; it covers an area of about 15,000 square miles, but is not very productive. 4. A fourth great coal field is situated in the States of Kentucky, Indiana and Illionois. Its area is es- timated at 50,000 square miles. 5. The fifth, and most western, occurs in Iowa, Missouri and Arkansas, and occupies an area of about 57,000 square miles. Besides these great deposits, coal is also found in New England, Kansas, Nebraska, and Texas.
The aggregate space underlaid by the coal fields of North America amounts to at least 200,000 square miles, or to more
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than twenty times the area which includes all the known coal deposits of Europe .- Wells' Geology.
MISCELLANEOUS.
The number of species of animals that now inhabit the globe is about 250,000. The number of fossil species of animals and plants cannot be reliably estimated, but it is safe to say that the number of the different extinct species that have been found in fossil state exceeds many times the number of all the different species now living.
Geologists claim four distinct periods or ages of the earth's history. Beginning at the oldest, they are called or named, First, the Azoic period, or period deficient of the evidence of life ; Second, Paleozoic, or period of ancient life; Third, the Mesozoic, or period of middle life; Fourth, or last period, called Cainozoic. This period includes the Post Tertiary, or recent system of rocks or period of recent life.
A picture of the Azoic period has thus been imagined by Hugh Miller. "During the early part of the Azoic period we may imagine," he says, " a dark atmosphere of steam and va- por, which, for age after age conceals the face of the sun, and through which the moon or stars never penetrates; oceans of thermal waters, heated in a thousand centers to the boiling point; low, half molten islands, dim through the fog and scarce more fixed than waves themselves, that heave and tremble under the impulsions of the igneous agencies ; roaring geysers that ever and anon throw up their intermittent jets of boiling fluid, vapor and thick steam, from these tremulous lands ; and in the dim outskirts of the scene, the red gleam of fire shot forth from yawning cracks and deep chasms. Such would be the probable state of things among the times of the earlier gneiss and mica-chist deposits-times buried deep in that chaotic night which must have continued to exist for, may hap, many ages after that beginning of things in which God created the heavens and the earth."
At length, however, as the earth's surface gradually cooled down and the enveloping waters sunk to a lower temperature, let us suppose during the latter times of the mica-schist and the earlier times of the clay slate, the steam atmosphere would become less dense and thick, and finally the rays of the sun would struggle through it; at first doubtful and diffused, form-
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ing a faint twilight, but gradually strengthening, as the later ages of the slate formation passed away, until at the close of the great primary period day and night-the one still dim and grey, the other wrapped in the pall of darkness-would suc- ceed each other as now, as the earth revolved on its axis.
The number of active volcanoes on our globe are about 275 Humboldt suggests the idea that volcanoes are merely vents. located above some far extended subterranean crack or fissure in the crust of the earth, through which the molten matter of the interior escapes to the surface.
The falls of Niagara are 150 feet in height, and the average amount of water passing over each minute is estimated at 670,000 tons. This water, by its abrading power, has undoubt- edly excavated for itself the gorge or channel-seven miles long, 200 feet deep, and 1,200 to 2,000 feet wide-which now intervenes between the falls and Lake Ontario. The minimum time required to wear through this space has been estimated by Sir Charles Lyell, at 35,000 years .- Well's Illustrated Geol.
STRATIFIED ROCKS.
The stratified rocks of Great Britain have been studied more than any other of the earth, and as the result of these investi- gations it has been found that the extinct mammalia, found in fossiliferous rocks, is more numerous by half than all the species now existing; and of molluscs, the fossil species nine times as numerous as the living species; the fossil fish five times, the reptiles ten times, and the radiate fourteen times.
The geologist finds no trace of that golden age of the world of which the poets delighted to sing, when all creatures lived together in peace, and wars and bloodshed were unknown. Ever since animal life began on our planet, there existed, in all departments of being, carniverous classes, who could not live but by the death of their neighbors ; and who were armed, in consequence, for their destruction, like the butcher with his axe and knife, and the angler with his hook and spear.
In Europe, the caverns or caves that have been discovered, have contained the remains or skeletons of a great many of the different species of animals that now inhabit the earth, and of others that are now extinct. For instance, the bones and skeletons of the mammoth are found in great numbers; also of the mastadon, the epoch of the mastadon, in a geolog- ical sense, is very recent. Some think that the mammoths and mastadons did not become entirely extinct in this country until after the advent of man. Sir Charles Lyell is of the opinion that the period of the extinction of the mastadon, although recent, must have been many thousand years ago.
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PHILOSOPHY.
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No two particles of matter can occupy the same space at the same time.
All bodies weigh heaviest at the earth's surface. A body that weighs 10 pounds at the earth's surface will weigh but 2} pounds 4,000 miles high.
Take two cog-wheels of the same size ; let one stand still put the cogs together and put the other in motion, and when it has made one-half revolution around the standing wheel it will have made a full revolution on its own center, notwith- standing only one-half of the cogs of its own surface has touched the standing wheel.
The atmosphere is the lightest in wet, rainy weather; yet we find people very often who think different. The medium pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds to the square inch, but this is not always the case. The pressure will vary in the same locality, and sometimes be greater or less. The medium hight that atmospheric pressure will raise water is about 33 feet ; but this calculation only holds good at the level of the sea, because as we ascend from the sea level the pressure becomes less; hence, our calculations for raising water by atmospheric pressure must be governed by the pres- sure that atmosphere has at the hight of the position above the sea level. Illustration : At sea level atmospheric pressure fifteen pounds to the square inch ; one mile above sea level, about 12} pounds ; two miles above, 10 pounds ; three miles, 7 pounds; consequently, on an elevation three miles high, water cannot be raised but about 163 feet by the weight of the air.
The top or upper part of a wagon wheel passes through a greater amount of space in a given time when running than the bottom; or, in other words, runs the fastest.
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PHILOSOPHY.
The piston rod of a steam engine makes two complete stops at every revolution of the crank attached to the end of the pitman.
HORSE POWER .- The average power of a horse is sufficient to raise a weight of about 23,000 pounds one foot per minute, but when calculating the horse power of a steam engine it is esti- tmated at 33,000 pounds. It then follows that a ten horse powers team engine is, in fact, about equal to fourteen average horses.
POWER OF STEAM .- One cubic foot of water converted into steam will raise the enormous weight of three and a half mil- lion pounds one foot, or seven hundred pounds one mile high.
All bodies or particles of matter fall to the eath by the at- traction of gravity, and their speed is in proportion to their density; but take away the resisting force of the atmosphere, then a cork or feather will fall as fast as a bullet.
Resultant motion may be illustrated by holding a ball or weight in your hand and dropping it from the top of your head while running, you will find that you cannot run fast enough to overtake the ball before it strikes the ground.
A ball may be shot from a cannon from the top of a tower on a horizontal plain, and another dropped from the mouth of the cannon at the same time, and they will both strike the earth at the same time, provided the surface be horizontal with the cannon.
Lever power is almost indispensable, or in other words, without it we could scarcely do anything; yet to take in con- sideration distance and speed, there is not a particle of power gained by a lever. Illustration : Suppose a lever 20 feet long, the fulcrum 2 feet from one end of the lever, 10 pounds on the long end of the lever is equal to 100 pounds on the short end ; but to raise the 100 pounds one foot the ten pounds passes through 10 feet of space, consequently it travels ten times as fast as the 100 pounds, so all that is gained in power is lost in speed and distance ; because if both ends of the lever was of the same length while one end of the lever was passing through ten feet of space the other end would pass through the same ten feet ; and ten pounds would raise ten pounds ten feet high, or ten times as high as the ten pounds on the long end of the lever would raise the 100 pounds on the short end.
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SKETCHES OF ASTRONOMY.
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ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
Many theories have been propounded at different periods of the history of astronomy, respecting the original formation of our Solar System, as well as all other suns and systems, which it has pleased the GREAT CREATOR OF ALL THINGS to call into existence, but no one has gained so great favor or excited so violent opposition, as the theory first proposed by Sir Wil- liam Herschel, and afterwards more especially applied by the celebrated La Place to the formation of the solar system.
This theory may be thus stated :- In the beginning all the matter composing the sun, planets, and satellites was diffused through space, in a state of exceedingly minute division, the ultimate particles being held asunder by the repulsion of heat. In process of time, under the action of gravitation, th? mass assumed a round or globular shape, and the particles tending to the centre of gravity, a motion of rotation on an axis would commence. The great mass, now gradually cool- ing and condensing, must increase its rotary motion, thereby increasing the centrifugal force at the equator of the revolv- ing mass, until, finally, a ring of matter is actually detached from the equator, and is left revolving in space by the shrink- ing away from it, of the interior mass. If now we follow this isolated ring of matter, we find every reason to believe that its particles will gradually coalesce into a globular form, and in turn form satellites, as it was itself formed. It is unneces- sary to pursue the reasoning further, for the same laws which produce one planet from the equator of the central revolving mass, may produce many-until finally, the process is ended by a partial solidification of the central mass, so great, that gravity aided by the attraction of cohesion, is more than suf ficient to resist the action of the centrifugal force, and no fur ther change occurs.
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It has been urged in favor of this theory, that it accounts for the striking peculiarities which are found in the organiza- tion of the solar system. That the rings of Saturn are positive proofs of the truth of the theory, they having cooled and con- densed without breaking. That the individuals constituting a system thus produced, must revolve and rotate as do the planets and satellites, and in orbits of the precise figure and position, as those occupied by the planets. It accounts for the rotation of the sun on its axis, and presents a solution of the strange appearance connected with the sun called the Zodiacal Light. It goes further and accounts for the forma- tion of single, double, and multiple suns and stars-and by the remains of chaotic matter in the interstics between the stars, and which are finally drawn to some particular sun, whose in- fluence in the end preponderates, accounts for the comets which enter our system from every region in space.
In support of this theory it has been urged that the comets, in their organization, presents us with specimens of this finely divided nebulous or chaotic matter-and that the telescope reveals cloudy patches of light of indefinite extent, scattered throughout space, which give evidence of being yet unformed and chaotic. That many stars are found in which the bright nucleus or centre is surrounded by a halo or haze of nebulous light, and that round nebulous bodies are seen with the teles- cope, of an extent vastly greater than would fill the entire space encircled by the enormous orbit of the planet La Verrier, or having a diameter greater than 7,000 millions of miles.
Such are a few of the arguments in support of this most ex- traordinary theory. We now present the objections which have been most strongly insisted on. The retrogade motions of the satellites of Herschel, and their great inclination to the plane of the ecliptic can not be accounted for by this theory. That computation shows that no atmosphere of con- densed nebulous matter can extend to so great a distance from the sun, as does the matter composing the Zodiacal Light, and, finally, that the nebulous matter in the heavens will ulti- mately be resolved into immense congeries and clusters of stars, whose great distance has hitherto defied the power of the best instruments.
In reply to the first objection, the friends of the theory doubt
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the facts with reference to the satellites of Herschel. They reply that the matter composing the Zodiacal Light being in the nature of cometary matter, is thrown to a greater distance from the sun than gravity would warrant, by that power resid- ing in the sun which is able on the approach of comets to project those enormous trains of light, which sometimes render them so wonderful. As to the last objection, it is urged that although many nebulæ will doubtless be resolved into stars, by using more powerful telescopes, yet that these same teles- copes will reveal more new nebulæ which cannot be resolved, than they will resolve-and as to the existence of nebulous matter, it is perfectly demonstrated by the physical organiza- tion of comets, and the existence of nebulous stars.
Such was the state of the Astronomical argument, when Lord Rosse's Great Reflector was first applied to the explora- tion of the distant regions of space. In a religious point of view, this theory had excited no small amount of discussion, in consequence of its supposed Atheistical tendencies. The friends of the theory contend that it was no more Atheistical to admit the formation of the universe by law, than to acknowl- edge that it is now sustained by laws. Indeed since we must go to the first great cause for matter in its chaotic state, as well as for the laws which govern matter, that this theory gave to us a grander view of the omniscience and omnipotence of God than could be obtained from any other source. In fine, that it harmonized with the declaration of scripture, which tells us that "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth, and the earth was without form and void." If the earth came into existence in its present condition, then it had form and was not void. Hence, this first grand declaration of the inspired writer must refer to the formation of the matter of which the heavens and earth were afterwards formed. Some went so far as to trace out dimly a full account of this theory in the order of creation, as laid down in Gensis.
Let us now proceed to the discoveries of Lord Rosse, and their influence on this greatly disputed theory. The space penetrat- ing power of his six feet reflector is much greater than that of Sir William Herschel's great telescope, and it was anti- cipated that many nebulæ which were unresolved into clusters of stars by Hershel, would yield under the greater power and light of Lord Rosse's telescope. This has proved to be the
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fact. Very many nebulæ have been removed from their old places, and must hereafter figure among the clusters, while we are informed that many yet remain, even of the old nebulæ, which defy the power of the monster telescope.
The most remarkable object which has been resolved by Lord Rosse, is the great nebula in Orion, one of the most extraordinary objects in the heavens. Its size is enormous, and its figure very extraordinary. In certain parts adjoining the nebula the heavens are jet black, either from contrast or by the vacuity of these regions. Two immense spurs of light are seen to project from the principal mass of the nebula, and to extend to a most extraordinary distance. This will be better understood, by remembering that at the distance at which this nebula is removed from us, the entire diameter of the earth's orbit, 190 millions of miles, is an invisable point, less than one second, while this nebula extends to many thousands of times this distance, and more probably to many millions of times.
Several stars have been found, and are visible on the nebula, but have hitherto been regarded as being between the eye of the observer and this remote object. Sir William Herschel was unable to resolve this mysterious body, and yet the nebula gave indications of being of the resolvable kind by its irreg- ular and curdled appearance under high powers. Several years since Dr. J. Lamont, of Munich, after a rigid scrutiny, of this nebula with his great Refractor, pronounced a portion of it to be composed of minute stellar points, and predicted its final perfect resolution into stars by greater power. This pre- diction has been fully verified, for Lord Rosse's great Reflector has solved the mystery, and filled this extraordinary object with the "jewelry of stars."
But the question recurs, what have the defenders of the nebular theory lost, or its enemies gained by this interesting discovery ? We are all liable to reach conclusions too hastily, and to join issue on false points. If the nebular theory depen- ded for its existance upon the irresolvability of the nebula in Orion, then indeed has the theory been entirely exploded. But this is not the fact. No one has asserted that the great nebula in Orion was nebulous matter, and if it were not, then none existed. Such an issue would have been a false cne, had it been made.
The theory has neither lost nor gained by the discoveries
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thus far made; what time may develope it is impossible to say. In case certain data can be obtained, which appear to be accessible, then indeed may we demonstrate its truth or false. hood, by mathematical investigation. Until then, the safer plan is neither to adopt nor reject, but investigate until abso- lute truth shall reward our long continued labor, and reveal the mystery of the organization of that stupendous system, of which our humble planet forms an insignificant part .- Smith's Astronomy.
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