USA > Ohio > Hamilton County > Cincinnati > Cincinnati in 1841 : its early annals and future prospects > Part 5
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The greatest quantity of rain noticed, fell during the year 1836, the amount being 57.39 inches; the least quantity fell in 1839, amounting to only 30.62 inches
The principal rains were accompanied with a south or south-west wind. Wet drizzly weather of several days' con- tinuance, is often accompanied by a north-east wind, and the deepest snows have uniformly been from this direction.
64
METEOROLOGY.
Weather.
We have divided the days into three classes. Those that were clear or fair, or of which the greater part was fair, are denominated clear and fair days; those of which any con- siderable part of the day was either fair or cloudy, are denom- inated variable days ; and those that were nearly or entirely cloudy, are denominated cloudy days. The following table shows the average number of days of each kind in a year.
Clear and fair days 146
Variable days 114
Cloudy days . 105
The least number of clear and fair days in any one of the last six years was 127, and the greatest number 164; this last was in 1838, when the waters in the west were so unusually low in autumn.
The least number of cloudy days in any one year was 100, and the greatest number 116.
The following table contains the average number of the dif- ferent kinds of weather, according to the preceding classifica- tion, for each month in the year.
Clear and fair days.
Variable days.
Cloudy days.
January
9.
8.
. 14
February
11
8. 9
March
14 7 10
April
12
9 .
9
May
11
June
11
14. 5
July
16
12. 3
August 12
September 16
8 .
6
October
14
8.
9
November
9
9. 12
December 11
6.
14
11. 9
14. 5
According to the preceding table, the greatest number of clear and fair days occurs in July and September, and the fewest in January and November. The greatest number of
65
- GEOLOGY.
cloudy days occurs in December and January, and the fewest in July.
Barometer.
The following table contains the mean height, the mini- mum and maximum height, and the range of the barometer at the Woodward college, which is situated about 150 feet above low water of the Ohio, and about 17 feet above the level of lake Erie.
Year
Mean height, inch.
Min. height, inch.
Max. h't, inches
Range
1835
29.3528
28.70
29.89
1.19
1836
29.3451
28.66
29.82
1.16
1837
29.2908
28.54
29.81
1.27
1838
29.3465
28.72
29.91
1.19
1839
29.3565
28.66
30.04
1.38
1840
29.3484
28.53
29.86
1.33
Mean
29.34
28.635
29.89
1.22
From the above table it will be seen, Ist, that the mean height in any year differs very little from the annual mean height: 2d, that the minimum and maximum height and range for each year are nearly the same : 3d, that the extreme range is 1.51 inches.
The greatest height of the barometer occurs when the wind is from the west and north-west, and the least height when it is from the south and south-west.
GEOLOGY.
OUR city is situated in that part of the " geological column" of rocks commonly known among the learned under the name of " Mountain Limestone" or in the " Upper Transition for- mation," a place, in general below, but nearly contiguous to, the coal measures, but in particular at Cincinnati, considerably removed from the coal by the interposition of several layers of different sorts of rocks .. Our blue limestone at Cincinnati F 2 -
66
GEOLOGY.
is, however, very different in its character from the mountain limestone of England, but it is included in a formation which, both above and below, exhibits those characters in great per- fection. The country in the immediate vicinity of Cincinna- ti seems, in a remote period of geological history, to have been a level terrace about 600 feet above low water of the Ohio, and nearly 1,200 feet above the Atlantic ocean. This terrace, now modified by the valleys or channels excavated by the streams, is composed of alternate layers of blue clay- marl, and a blue or lead colored fossiliferous limestone. The stone is nearly pure carbonate of lime, but sometimes passing more or less into a soft shale or slate. The marl contains lime and is effervescent with acids, but still exhibits the exter- nal characters of a tough clay somewhat indurated. Through these strata. the streams 'appear to have worn their present channels to the depth of five to six hundred feet, having left, at various heights above their present beds, their ancient allu- vion of clay, sand and gravel, often enclosing logs of wood and not unfrequently the remains of elephants. The larger streams are now found meandering through alluvial plains called " bottom lands," extending from half of -a mile to four miles in width. These alluvions present at the surface a rich black fertile mould from six inches to two or three feet deep, well wrought in the native condition, by the natural cultiva- tors the earth-worm and the mole. Beneath this mould are several feet, eight to twelve perhaps, of amber-colored clay loam, supported often by a substratum of clay, sand or gran- itic gravel. The black mould and amber loam above describ- ed, extend over the high terrace, but often with a diminished thickness, and without the gravelly. substratum, resting imme- diately on the limestone in situ. It constitutes a soil of pro- verbial fertility, but from the quantity of clay which it con- tains, it is -adhesive when too wet, and stiff and impenetrable when too dry. This amber-colored loam imparts its tinge to the waters of the Ohio during its floods, and has given origin to the poetical name of the "Amber Stream." The descents
67
GEOLOGY.
into the valleys, although steep, are generally rounded and co- vered with fertile soil. As the rocks, although they some- times " crop out," never form high cliffs, the waved and hilly outline seen from below is rather beautiful than picturesque.
Cincinnati itself is built on an ancient alluvial plain, lying in two levels called the "upper and lower bottoms." The lower level, fifty to sixty feet above extreme low water of the Ohio, presents a deep loam; the upper level, seventy or eighty feet higher than the lower one, besides the black mould and amber loam, has a substratum of sharp quartzose sand and coarse granitic gravel, intermingled with limestone pebbles. Imbedded in this gravel have been found several bones and teeth of elephants. Wells and deep pits, either in the upper or lower level, are often filled with "choke damp" or carbonic acid, so as to prove fatal to the incautious laborer who attempts to descend; this is especially apt to be the case, after such places have remained covered during the night.
The layers of blue limestone are from the thinest possible to twenty-two inches or possibly two feet in thickness, com- pact or somewhat granular, semicrystalline, strong and dura- ble and well calculated for many economical purposes, such as affording lime for mortar, "metal" for roads, stones for pavements, and for foundations, and even a handsome dark marble for interior architecture. They are often literally fill- ed with marine fossils, such as corallines, trilobites, enchrinites, orthoceritites and various univalve and bivalve shells. Peo- ple ordinarily mistake these for petrifactions of objects now found in the country, but they are all the products of a primi- tive ocean. The blue limestone of Cincinnati is the lowest rock which occurs within several hundred miles, and occupies a space at least a thousand feet in thickness. Although its layers lie apparently in an exact level, yet they decline both to the east and to the west so as ultimately to disappear under other strata, and finally, with those strata, under the two great coal fields which commence between one and two hundred miles on both sides of the city. The strata intervening be-
68
GEOLOGY.
tween the blue limestone and the coal formation, begin to be found at the surface between forty and one hundred miles from our city, concealing that limestone from view. Proceeding upward, they are, in thickness, as follows.
1st. Blue fossiliferous limestone of Cincinnati, . 1,000 ft. 2d. The proper mountain limestone, or cliff-lime- stone, . . 200
3d. Bituminous shale, . 250
4th. Fine-grained sandstone used for building in Cincinnati, . 350
5th. A `coarse pebbly or conglomerate sandstone,
which includes shale, limestone, iron, salt and coal . . .2,000
As the limits of this article do not permit a separate des- cription of these formations, the reader is referred to my re- port to the legislature of Ohio on the geology of the south- western part of the state, and to Dr. Owen's report, including my own, to the congress of the United States, on the geology of the mineral lands. of Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois. It was discovered by Dr. Owen and myself, in the survey of the last named region, that its rocks, including the immense treas- ures of iron, zinc, lead and copper, were identical with the cliff-limestone of Ohio, showing itself at the Yellow Springs, at Dayton, Columbus, and West Union in Ohio, and at Mad- ison in Indiana, at all of which places it is more or less me- taliferous. Wherever I have examined this cliff-limestone, it appears to be minutely identical in geological position, in ex- ternal and chemical characters, and in mineral contents with the mountain limestone of Great Britain as it exhibits itself in Derbyshire. I arrived at this conclusion independent of au- thorities, and I find that Mr. Featherstonehaugh had come to the same conclusion in reference to the rocks of the upper Mississipi. The name, cliff-limestone, has been applied by. the inhabitants of some parts of Ohio to this rock, from its . peculiar disposition to form massive abrupt cliffs and precipi- ces, often eighty or one hundred feet in height, In England
69
GEOLOGY.
it is provincially called " scar-limestone," and Dr. Owen as- certained that the obsolete word scar signified nearly the same thing as cliff. Hence it would seem that its peculiar pictu- resque outline is a natural distinctive character.
The blue fossiliferous limestone of Cincinnati, after plung- ing under the great coal field of Illinois in company with the cliff or proper mountain limestone, reappears at Dubuque, where it is diminished to a few feet in thickness, while the su- perincumbent cliff stone, filled with veins of lead ore, is de- veloped into a stratum of six hundred feet in height. The blue limestone extends to Prairie du Chien, to the falls of St. Anthony and some distance up the river St. Peter's, but in a layer of only twenty feet or less. At Prairie du Chien it is raised some hundreds of feet above the water of the Missis- sipi, and exhibits underneath it a renewal of the cliff rock, but with fewer fossils. As our blue limestone is then includ- ed in the mountain limestone and alternates with it, I am in- clined to consider it a peculiar member of that limestone. From this brief sketch every geologist would anticipate our local advantages. Situated in the centre of the inexhaustibly fertile region of the blue limestone with its alternations of enriching marl, midway between the two largest and most easily wrought coal fields in the world, and also between in- exhaustible beds of excellent iron ore, with every facility of natural water communication, so that even the treasures of the Mississipi mines come to our doors almost spontaneously ; with a fine climate and with every material for the foundation and the superstructure of a city, it must be from a wanton abuse of the benevolent munificence of our Creator if we fail to continue to be prosperous and happy. .
The natural waters of the vicinity of Cincinnati, are such as might be anticipated from the geology. The wells and springs afford clear, cool, " limestone water,". viz. water hold- ing carbonate of lime in solution. The waters of the Mia- mis, especially when low, contain lime to such an extent as to be too hard for washing. This might be expected, as they
-
70
MAGNETISM.
have their origin and course through limestone rocks. The proper cliff-limestone is often magnesian, and sulphate of mag- nesia is not an uncommon ingredient in waters from particular localities, as at Pace's wells. The waters of the Ohio, flow- ing chiefly over the sandstone and shales of the coal meas- ures, until within seventy or eighty miles of our city, are but slightly impregnated with mineral matter, and are so soft as scarcely to coagulate a solution of soap. Although rather bland in taste, the " hydrant water" of our city, raised from the Ohio, is reputed to be healthy, and less liable to disagree with strangers accustomed only to soft water, than that of springs or wells.
MAGNETISM.
Popular Elementary Definitions.
THE elements of terrestrial magnetism consist simply of the force, power, or intensity with which the earth attracts the magnetized needle, and of the direction in which that force acts ; but, from the vast importance of the horizontal or com- pass-needle, both in navigation and surveying, and from the facility of suspending and experimenting with the same, it is customary to estimate certain elements of the needle in that position, although it is seldom the direction-never in our la- titude-in which, if allowed to move freely in all directions, it would place itself. The quantities sought to be measured are usually four :
First. The declination, " variation," or direction of the ho- rizontal needle, as it respects the true astronomical north or south points.
Second. The force, or intensity with which the horizontal needle is attracted by the earth, and held in its direction : this is called the horizontal intensity.
Third: The dip, or true course in which a needle, perfect- ly free to move in all directions, would finally rest and be held by the earth's attraction.
71
MAGNETISM.
Fourth. The force or intensity with which the needle, in the direction of the dip, is attracted by the earth: this is call- ed the total intensity .*.
Magnetical Declination or Variation.
Most persons are aware that the compass-needle does not everywhere point to the true north, but varies in its direction in different places on the earth's surface, in such a manner that it either points east of it, directly towards it, or west of it. The force with which the earth attracts or pulls such a needle, so as to hold it in its direction, and cause it to vibrate if it be moved out of that direction and be suffered freely to return, is called the horizontal intensity, and is measured by the quickness of the vibrations. Thus, when there are a greater number of vibrations of the same needle, in the same time, the horizontal intensity is greater, being as the squares of the numbers of such vibrations. A vibrating needle used for determining the intensity, is a "magnetical pendulum," acted upon by magnetism as a clock pendulum is by gravi- tation.
Magnetical Dip.
Make a needle of tempered steel, with pivots at the sides, so that it can turn like a cannon, and point up or down; bal- ance it so nicely that it will stay in any position in which you place it : this must be done while the steel has no magnet- ism. Next, magnetize that needle by " touching" it with magnets, as directed in the books on magnetism. Lastly, place the pivots in proper supports, exactly crosswise of the line in which the compass-needle points : it will no longer re- main balanced, especially in the horizontal position, but, in the latitude of the United States, the north end will turn down, nearer to a perpendicular than to a level. This turning down, or out of the level, is called the dip; it is measured by the number of degrees which the north end descends from a level
* To avoid a circumlocution of language, the earth's attraction is named without expressing particularly the mutual attraction between the earth and needle.
72
MAGNETISM.
line. The dip increases as we travel northward, until at a point north of the western part of Hudson's Bay, it points directly downward. At or near the equator there is no dip, or the dipping-needle lies level; and south of that point, the south end of the needle descends, as does the north end in the northern hemisphere.
Now, whatever direction the dipping-needle takes, it is held there by a magnetical force of the earth, which, when it is mov- ed out of that direction, draws it back again, and causes it to vibrate like a pendulum, and, finally, to settle at the proper dip. If the force be greater, the vibrations will be quicker : this force is called the total intensity, and is not usually as- certained by the vibrations of the dipping-needle, but is de- duced by calculations from the horizontal intensity, and the dip, at any locality. This force, on the whole, increases as we proceed northwardly ; but the horizontal intensity, in con- sequence of the increase of the dip, diminishes in the same direction. At the magnetic pole, where the dip would be 90 degrees, (viz : the dipping-needle perpendicular,) the horizon- tal intensity would be nothing, and the common compass-nee- dle would point in one direction' as soon as in another-the magnetical force of the earth pulling it, at all points, directly downward upon the supporting pivot.
. Now, to measure these four quantities, in different locali- ties, as accurately as possible, has been a part of my labors in the late brief survey of a part of our territories.
Some sorts of iron ores have an influence on the magnetic needle, and change either its direction or its. intensity. The effect of such ore increases directly as the quantity or mass, and diminishes as the squares of the distances increase ; and although the mass may be large, yet, from the effect of depth or distance, the indication may be too slight to be observed, unless. by the most delicate instruments, skilfully used. By means of these, we may be guided to vast mineralogical treas- ures ; for, however desirous we may be to discover gold and - silver mines, iron is the more useful metal. In Iowa, one
73
MAGNETISM.
magnetical node has been discovered, which may be produced by a " subterraneous iron mountain." Independently, how- ever, of any economical views, it will be a matter of gratifi- cation to the scientific world to receive a small contribution to their fund of magnetical knowledge; for an effort is now making to collect and imbody as many accurate magnetical observations as possible, in order the more fully to determine the changes, distributions, and general laws of this wonderful force, and to make it still more subservient to the purposes of general utility.
A very interesting report on the subject of magnetical ob- servations has lately been made to the Royal Society, by sir J. F. W. Herschell. Upon the approval of that report by the society, a deputation was requested to communicate certain resolutions to Lord Melbourne, and to urge on the government the adoption of the measures therein proposed. "This," says the editor of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, " has produced its desired effect upon her majesty's ministers, who have appointed three officers of artillery, with adequate at- tendants, to go, respectively, to Montreal, to the Cape of Good Hope, and to St. Helena, to make experiments on the variations and dip of the needle, and the intensity of mag- netism, frequently and simultaneously, each day, for three years," &c.
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AT CINCINNATI.
Magnetical Declination or Variation.
In 1825, Mr. Gest, the city surveyor, and myself, found the compass-needle to point 5° 15' east of due north. In 1840, the above quantity had diminished to 4° 46' east of due north.
Magnetical Dip.
Since March, 1840, I have continued to make monthly observations on the dip and horizontal intensity. The fol-
G
TABLE OF MAGNETICAL DIP OBSERVED MONTHLY AT CINCINNATI.
Day.
Hour.
Dip by needle No. 1.
Dip by needle No. 2.
Mean.
1840
h. m.
h. m.
March 6,
2 30 to 3 30 P. M.
70° 27'.250
70° 27'.562
70° 27.812
April 21,
9 46 to 10 40 A. M.
70° 29'.687
70° 28'.000
70° 28'.844
May 21,
10 35 to 11 35 A. M.
70° 24'.450
70° 24.937
70° 24'.694
June 22,
11 34 to 12 30
M.
70° 28'.062
70° 27.437
70° 27'.750
July 18,
5 30 to 6 30 P. M.
70° 29'.062
70° 27.937
70° 28'.500
July 19,
11 30 to 12 30
M.
70° 25'.625
70° 25'.812
70° 25'.718
August 18,
10 00 to 11 00 A. M.
70° 27.375
70° 27'.500
70° 27.437
Sept. 24,
9 00 to 10 45 A. M.
70° 29'.200
70° 29'.200
70° 29'.200
October 22,
9 30 to 10 30 A. M.
70° 29'.000
70° 28'.375
70° 28'.687
Novem. 20,
10 15 to 11 15 A. M.
70° 25'.187
70° 25'.437
70° 25'.313
Decem. 23,
11 00 to 12 00
M.
70° 27'.250
70° 26'.812
70° 27'.031
1841
January 23,
11 00 to 12 00
M.
70° 24.937
70° 24'.750
70° 24'.844
Mean of 192 observations
· 70° 27'.152
Each of the above twelve observations is the mean of sixteen single observations, including all of the possible reversals of the dipping apparatus with two needles.
uary, 1841.
74
lowing table exhibits his results as regards the dip, up to Jan-
MAGNETISM.
75
MAGNETISM.
Magnetical Intensity.
By means of observations made at Greenwich and West- bourn Green, (England,) and at Cincinnati, I have determin- ed the total intensity or force of terrestrial magnetism to be greater at Cincinnati than at Greenwich, in the ratio of 1,000 to 1,270.
Line of equal Dip of London.
"This line which, in 1837, was by my observation 69º 23', passes more than a degree south of Cincinnati, and advanc- ing westward, passes through Princeton in Indiana, lat. 38° 23' north, long. 87º 30' west, and crosses the Mississipi river about fifteen miles south of St. Louis, in Missouri.
Besides the observations from which the above determina- tions have been made, I have extended my researches over a large portion of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin. A part of the results of my labors may be found in Dr. Owen's Report on the mineral lands of the United States.
Wishing you success in your laborious and useful enter- prise, permit me to subscribe myself,
Very respectfully yours, JOHN LOCKE.
The preceding communications on geology and magnetism, from professor Locke of the Medical College of Ohio, embo- dy the results of his researches on those subjects to the latest dates. The scientific reader needs no testimony of mine on their value.
76
CANALS, RAILROADS, AND TURNPIKES.
CANALS, RAILROADS, AND TURNPIKES.
Public Works of Inter-communication connecting Cincin- nati with the adjoining country.
WORKS of inter-communication, with rare exceptions, follow the valleys of a country, because, not only easier and cheaper to make, but also, because these valleys supply the largest por- tion of produce to be transported to market.
Cincinnati is a central point, in the valley of the Ohio, to a great region of country, which is directly dependent upon it, both as a consumer and a shipper of produce. An inspec- tion of the map shows the following valleys immediately con- nected with it.
1. The small, but exceedingly fertile valley of Millcreek, which is about twenty miles in length, from two to three miles in breadth, and terminates precisely at the city. This is the only opening through which a road can reach the city without passing over hills, and descending steep de- clivities. In consequence of this natural formation of the ground, the " Hamilton road," as it is called, was, for many years, almost the only avenue by which business was trans- acted with the back country, and is still the most important road.
2. The next valley is that of the Little Miami River, which is a considerable stream, but unfit for navigation,- emptying into the Ohio at Columbia, and about seven miles from and above Main street, Cincinnati. The valley of this river is near eighty miles in length, of various breadth, and great fertility. This stream furnishes a large water power, and has many mills upon it.
3. The third, and indeed principal valley of the tributary streams connected with Cincinnati is the Great Miami River. The valley of this stream is one hundred and twenty miles in length, and in places several miles in diameter. Throughout its whole length it is one of extreme productiveness, and of
77
CANALS, RAILROADS, AND TURNPIKES.
inexhaustible soil. This valley terminates about twenty miles below Cincinnati.
4. Very near the mouth of the Great Miami, the Whitewa- ter River joins it, and may, therefore, be considered as form- ing a separate valley ; the whole of which lies in Indiana, but trades entirely with Cincinnati.
5. The next and last valley connected immediately with Cincinnati is that of Licking River, which empties into the Ohio, exactly opposite Cincinnati. This stream lies in Ken- tucky, but the region adjoining it trades chiefly with this city. This valley is more than two hundred miles in length ; much of the lower part is fertile and productive : the upper part is mountainous, but abundant in mineral resources.
We shall describe the works of inter-communication con- nected with Cincinnati, in the natural order of the valleys re- lating to it.
1. The first and most important of these valleys, is the Great Miami river, and accordingly, through that, and in con- nection with the Millcreek valley, was constructed the earliest and most important of the great works connected with Cin- cinnati ; this is the Miami canal. This work was commenced at the same time with the Ohio canal, and finished in 1828. The original work only extended about sixty-seven miles, to the mouth of Mad river, now the very flourishing town of Dayton. Since that it has been extended, under the name of the Miami Canal Extension, to Piqua (about eighty-three miles,) and is now in rapid progress to Defiance, at the junc- tion of the Auglaise river with the Maumee, whence it is con- tinued to Lake Erie, under the name of the Wabash canal. From Cincinnati to the rapids of Maumee is about two hun- dred and ninety miles, and the whole work, it is confidently anticipated, will be finished within two years. At present the only part in use is from Cincinnati to Piqua, eighty-three miles. The Miami canal proper has for the last two years paid more than the interest of the debt incurred for its con- struction-the highest evidence of its utility. In connection G 2
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