USA > Pennsylvania > Venango County > Venango County, Pennsylvania: Her Pioneers and People (Volume 1) > Part 9
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Samuel Gildersleeve and William Whann were first in that part of Mineral township which was formerly a part of Sandy Creek : the former was from New Jersey and settled on the Mercer road ; the latter was from Northum- berland county and built on South Sandy, after-
ward going to Ohio. Both came in 1797. Other pioneers of Mineral were Archibald Henderson, of Allegheny county; Shadrach Simcox, from Maryland; Andrew Smith, of Washington county ; Daniel Crain, of New Jer- sey, and Jacob Rice.
The account of the settlement of French creek already given was confined to the town- ship only. Within the present limits of Sugar Creek, north of French creek, the pioneers were Mr. Bowman, father of Andrew Bow- man of Franklin, who came in 1795; Ebenezer Roberts, who worked on the present poorhouse farm, in 1796; Angus McKinzie, a Scotchman, who came from Pittsburgh; William Cousins, one of the garrison of Fort Franklin who re- mained here; John Rogers and Luther Thomas, who came in 1796; and John McCal- mont, from Center county, who with his sons Thomas, Robert, James, Alexander, John and Joseph came in. 1803. Another son, Henry, did not come till 1817.
In Canal township, the earliest settlement was in the vicinity of Utica, by Hugh and Alexander Johnston, father and son, from the North of Ireland, in 1796. Among the earliest permanent settlers were also John and James Foster ; Thomas Smiley ; Jacob Whitman ; Wil- liam Brown, a veteran of the Revolution from New York, who had a well known hotel at Hannaville for many years; James McCuen, prior to 1805: John Hastings, John Duffield, Samuel and Alexander Ray, Jacob Lupher, John Cooper ; William and John Boughner, W. P. Clough, William and David Gilmore, and John Mawhinney.
In Jackson township, Robert Beatty, who lo- cated on "the prairie," in the extreme southern part, was the first white settler in Sugar creek valley between the mouth of the stream and Crawford county line. A Revolutionary sol- dier, William Cooper, settled at Cooperstown, 1797. Samuel Plumer from Allegheny county lived in this county from 1800 to 1810, when he returned to Allegheny county. He is remem- bered as the father of Arnold Plumer, who was born in this township. Other early settlers were: James McCurdy, Revolutionary soldier ; Samuel Small from Bucks county ; and James Alexander. John McFadden, Robert Mason. William McIntosh, John Bleakley and John Gibson.
Although an interior section, remote from the water highway by which it was usually reached, Oakland township was settled as early as the contiguous sections. In 1797 Lawrence Dempsey, from Ireland. settled at Dempsey- town. coming here from Center county. He was
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the father of David Dempsey, assemblyman, 1814, and of Peter Dempsey, founder of Demp- seytown. Three arrived in 1798, Robert Mc- Elhaney from Westmoreland county, William McClain and James Gordon ; a number in 1800, among whom were Jonah Reynolds, from New York State; Charles Stevenson, Revolutionary soldier ; William Morehead; Edward Patchel, for whom Patchel run is named; and James Mason, Northumberland county; Francis Curtis, Revolutionary soldier ; George Kean and his brother William. Alexander McCor- mick and Alexander Fowler came in 1802; William Hays and William Reed in 1803; Phillip Keys, Revolutionary veteran, and Philip Walls, in 1804; John Fetterman, 1805.
In Oil creek valley, James Ricketts was the first settler. He was a professional hunter, with great experience on the frontier. Passing the mouth of Oil creek, he went to Petroleum Center, turned eastward and built a cabin on the headwaters of Cherry run. There was then no other white man in Cornplanter town- ship, no roads or fences. Intending to remain so long as the hunting was good, he spent his life in the vicinity of his first cabin. A num- ber of his descendants remain. He came in 1795. The first settlers on Oil creek in Corn- planter township were, in order from the Alle- gheny river, Francis Halyday, Hamilton Mc- Clintock, Francis Culbertson, Ambrose Rynd, Francis Buchanan, James and Robert Storey, and Francis McClintock. The McClintocks were from Lancaster county. Ambrose Rynd came from Ireland in 1799, coming to Venango in 1800 accompanied by his son, John, a well known and useful citizen. Francis Halyday in 1803 settled in Oil City (Third Ward). The first to settle in the central and eastern part of Cornplanter were the Allender family, who gave their name to a small stream in the north- eastern part of the township; Thomas Prather, from Franklin county; and the McFates, Lambs, Morrisons and Shaws.
The Pithole settlement was among the first. In 1796 Andrew McElhaney came here, but on account of Indian troubles returned to Center county. The Dawson family, who were prob- ably the earliest adherents of Methodism in the county; Hugh and Michael McGerald, probably the first Catholics in the county ; and Isaac Conneley, father of George W. Conneley, prothonotary, were among the earliest settlers on the headwaters of Pithole creek in Alle- gheny township. Asper Cornwell came in 1819; David Dunham, in 1821; Ebenezer Byles, in 1825; John Tennent, in 1826; and John Lamb, in 1827.
In Oil Creek township Andrew and Daniel Fleming settled in 1796, the earliest in the township. Jacob Richards and Abraham Sow- ers were there several years later, but neither remained long. James Shreve, from Fayette county ; John Lytle, a native of Ireland; Wil- liam Poor, from Massachusetts, and James Miller, on whose land Miller Farm was built, were early residents in various parts of the township. Abraham Lovell was at the site of Pleasantville in 1820, and Aaron Benedict in 1821.
On the opposite side of Oil creek, at Cherry- tree, William Reynolds was the first settler, in 1797. He was an Englishman, and settled at Cherrytree village. In 1798 James Tuthill, from eastern Pennsylvania, and John Straw- bridge, from the Susquehanna valley, arrived. Four Irwin brothers came to Cherrytree in 1800: Samuel, first postmaster in the town- ship, and father of Judge Richard Irwin ; John, associate judge of Venango county, 1805-1838; James; and Ninian, a member of the first board of county commissioners. They came from Union county. Thomas Hamilton and four sons, James ( father of John Hamilton, second sheriff of the county), Thomas, Hugh and Archibald, arrived in 1801, and in the same year Elial Farr came from New England, and Henry Prather from Eastern Pennsylvania. Of several German families, those of George Tarr, Andrew Coover and Jacob Casper were the most prominent. Elisha Archer came in 1801; Elijah Stewart, in 1802; Manus Mc- Fadden and Edward Griffin, in 1803 and 1802, respectively ; John Stiver, William Robert Curry and Alexander Davidson, prior to 1805; James Alcorn, in 1811, and Joseph Breed, in 1818.
In the extreme northwestern part of the county, Benjamin August was the first settler, He was the only Russian known to have been among the pioneers. He settled in Plum town- ship about 1798. Jacob Jennings, a blacksmith, located in Bradleytown in 1800, and Samuel Proper arrived from Schoharie county, N. Y., in 1801.
The first settler of Eagle Rock, in President township, was Patrick McCrea. He came in 1797, and was the earliest settler on the Alle- gheny between Franklin and Warren. He was from Ireland, held a commission in the British army, and was a man of education. John Henry, also from Ireland, came to the county in 1798 and settled at Henry's Bend in 1802. Here he stayed till his death, 1858, at the age of eighty-seven. Samuel Rhoads came in 1804, taking lands at Henry's Bend, in same town-
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ship. In 1813-14 he sold to Francis Culbert- son. Robert Elliott settled at the mouth of Hemlock creek, upon a tract embracing the site of President village, at a later date.
In the part east and south of the Allegheny river, the country was almost uninhabited for ten years after other parts of the county con- tained a considerable population. In Richland township the early settlers were Moses and Andrew Porter, Johnson McGinnis, Samuel Stewart and John Kerr, within a distance of several miles from the river ; and James Say, John Donaldson, John Bell, William Nickle, William Adams, Daniel O'Neil, Samuel Hus- ton, Alexander Sullinger, James Downing, John and James Levier, John McDonald, Henry Mays, Andrew Weaver, George Myers, Robert Criswell, Abraham Persing and sev- eral members of the Karns family.
In Rockland township, it is current tradition that the first settler was John Watt, from But- ler county, in 1809, and that Andrew Maitland came, in the same year, also from that locality. John Sullinger, Revolutionary soldier, from Westmoreland, secured a tract here in 1805, which he occupied in 1813. The first improve- ment at Davis' Corners was made by James Crawford. In 1815 John Donaldson came from Butler county. Matthias and John Stover, Peter Lovell, Enoch Battin, John Hetz- ler, John and David Jolly were the pioneers at Freedom; William McClatchey, William Craig, the Graham family, Abraham Witherup, Daniel McMillin, and William Hill, at different points on the Allegheny river ; David and Dan- iel Smith, William, Samuel and Joseph Ross, near Davis' Corners; John Haggerty, John Prior, Silas Brown and John McDonald, in the eastern part of the township.
Cranberry township has no record of settle- ment prior to 1807, when Joel Sage located on the stream since called Sage run. The first set- tlers of this extensive township were along the river, beginning at the mouth of East Sandy, in the following order : Samuel Lindsey, Thomas, John Seidels, Andrew Downing, Isaac Smith, Samuel Howe and Joel Sage. The Brandons-John, William, James and Elliott, from Cumberland county; William Dickson, Center county; Alexander Strain, Ephraim Turk and Samuel Culbertson, from Butler county, and Zelotus Jewel, New York State, were pioneers near Salina;' James Crawford from Rockland township, Joseph Kennedy from Cumberland county, James Thompson, James Moorhead, John McCool and Cornelius Houser, at "The Meadows"; James Eaton, Michael White, Michael Frawley, Matthew
Gibbon and Joseph Gillman, on the State road within a few miles of Franklin; John McCurry, Nicholas Lake, Silas Tibbitts, William Stew- art, William Craig, Constantine Daugherty, William Allison, Samuel Mckinney, John Mc- Bride and Hutchinson Borland, vicinity of Salem City ; and Jacob Zeigler, William Prior, Peter Smith and Orren Boyle, on Susquehanna Waterford turnpike, near East Brady.
In Pinegrove township, the honor of first settlement is ascribed to John Hicks and Ebenezer Kingsley. H. G. Spofford came in 1817, and effected the first substantial improve- ments. The first permanent settler was Sam- uel Powell, July 19, 1818, from Albany, N. Y. The Stover family, from Maryland, were the first residents of Centerville, and Marvin Perry, a county commissioner at an early date, was a pioneer in the southwestern part of the township. Among others in this section were the Gibsons, Hales, Whitneys, Dimonds, Gayettys and Schwabs.
On the assessment books of 1805, the year the county was separately organized, the tax- ables of the townships at that time were given as follows :
Allegheny Township .- Alexander Allender, John Anderson, Thomas Anderson, John Blood, Henry Boner, John Boner, John Buck, Thomas Boyd, Felix Campbell, William Chap- ple, John Conoway, William Cooper, Francis Culbertson, James Davidson, Thomas David- son, James Dawson, Thomas Dawson, Daniel Dougherty, Andrew Fleming, James Fleming, John Fleming, Sarah Fleming, Samuel Flem- ing, Henry Gates, Charles Gordon, Michael Graham, James Green, Joel Green, Samuel Gregg, Daniel Guinn, John Hamilton, Richard Hamilton, John Hardy, John Henry, John Hicks, Moses Hicks, John Hinds, Alexander Holeman, Charles Holeman, Eli Holeman, Tabitha Holeman, Benjamin Huffman, Joseph Huff, Roland Hunter, John Kerr, Andrew Kin- near, David Kinnear, William Kinnear, Eben- ezer Kingsley, James Lamb, John Lytle, Wil- liam Lytle, Cornelius Mellon, William Middle- ton, William Miles, Andrew Miller, Thomas McCaman, Daniel McCaslin, James McCaslin, Joseph McCaslin, James McConnell, John Mc- Connell, Michael McCrea, Patrick McCrea, Alexander McElhaney, Robert McFate, Barney McGentry, Hugh McGerald, Michael McGerald, Margaret McGrady, William Neill, John Nelson, Thomas Nelson, Henry O'Bril, Samuel Patterson, Abraham Prather, Thomas Prather, Thomas H. . Prather, Arthur Rei- hard, Samuel Rhoads, James Riley, Jacob Richards, James Ricketts, John Ryan, Jesse
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Sage, Noah Sage, George Sampson, John Siggins, William Siggins, George Simon- ton, Robert Simonton, Thomas Simonton, James Shreve, Abraham Sowers, Chauncey Stanley, John Stewart, Walter Stewart, John Storm, Alexander Thompson, John Thomp- son, Lewis Thompson, William Tripp, George Tubbs, Barbara Valentine, William Watson, .Robert Watson, James Walker, John Wilkins, Thomas Wilson.
Irwin Township .- James Adams, Welden Adams, William Adams, Jacob Allen, Philip Allen, Andrew Allison, John Applegate, George Armstrong, Samuel Atkinson, Robert Atwell, Aaron Austin, Moses Austin, Ernest Baker, John Baker, William Baker, Thomas Baird, John Barron, George Bartlett, Isaac Bennett, John Black, Thomas Black, Robert Blaine, David Blair, John Blair, Matthew Blair, John Bonner, John Bradford, Thomas Brandon, Timothy Breece, David Brown, John Bullion, Thomas Bullion, Moses Bonnell, Wil- liam Burns, Robert Calvert, Daniel Camp, William Curtis, George Carson, Peter Cole, Daniel Cooper, Elias Cooper, Samuel Cooper, William Cooper, Patrick Coulter, William Courtney, Caleb Crane, Martin Crigher, Robert Crawford, William Crawford, James Craig, Henry Crull, Alexander Culbertson, John Culbertson, James Darraugh, William Darraugh, Archibald Davidson, James David- son, Patrick Davidson, William Davidson, Benjamin Davis, William Davis, Hugh Der- umple, George Dewoody, John Dewoody, William Dewoody, Adam Dinsmore, Wil- liam Dixon, John Donaldson, Robert Don- aldson, Thomas Donaldson, John Duffield, William Duffield, John Eakin, William Eakin, Samuel Eakin, William Evans, James Fearis, John Ferron, William Flatcher, James Fleming, Matthew Fleming, James Fos- ter, George Fowler, John Fritz, Martin Fritz, Craft Ghost, Phillip Ghost, Samuel Gilder- sleeve, Brice Gilmore, David Gilmore, James Glenn, John Gordon, Alexander Graham, James Graham, Robert Graham, Thomas Gra- ham, William Graham, James Greenlee, Robert Greenlee, Samuel Grimes, Edward Hale, James Hall, Thos. Hamilton, Ebenezer and John Han- na, Hugh Hasson, Saml. Hathaway, Simeon Hathaway, John Hays, Samuel Hays, William Hays, James G. Heron, William Hill, Adam Hoffman, James Hoffman, Michael Hoffman, Philip Hoffman, William Hood, Marcus Hul- ings, John Irwin, Patrick Jack, Thomas Jacob, Robert Jamison, Solomen Jennings, Seth Jewel. Robert Johnson, Samuel Jolly, Thomas Jones, William Jones, Robert Jones, John Ire-
land, William 'Irwin, John Karns, R. Thomas Kennedy, George Kring, William Larrimer, James Leslie, Samuel Lindsay, John Lindsay, Johnathan Luce, James Lynn, William Lynn, William Lyons, David Martin, James Martin, John Martin, William Martin, Patrick Means, Thomas Milford, William Milford, William Minter, James Mitchell, Robert Mitchell, - Richard Monjar, Samuel Monjar, John Mor- rison, Patrick McAvey, James McClaran, John McClaran, Thomas McClaran, George McClel- land, David McConnaughy, Thomas McCor- mick, Hugh Mccutcheon, Alexander McDow- ell, James McDowell, Nathan McDowell, Pat- rick McDowell, Miles McEib, Edward McFad- dan, Philip Mckay, Thomas McKee, William McKee, Hugh McManigal, Alexander Mc- Michael, Daniel McMillin, John McMillin, Isaac McMurdy, Alexander McQuiston, John McQuiston, Sarah McTear, John Nelson, James Nicholson, Edward Patchel, James Patchel, Moses Perry, John Phipps, Nathan Phipps. Richard Pope, Alexander Porter, Hugh Porter, George Power, Dennis Pursel, Daniel Rankin, John Ray, James Ray, Samuel Ray, Joseph Reddick, Jacob Rice, Matthew Riddle, Jonathan Riggs, Isaac Robertson, Wil- liam Robertson, Samuel Robb, Jacob Running- er, Margaret Russell, Thomas Russell, William Russell, David Say, Adam Scott, James Scott, Robert Scott, Wm. Scott, Abraham Selders, Robert Selders, William Shannon, Augustus Shaw, Anthony Shirkley, John Sidell, Shad- rach Simcox, John Sloan, William Sloan, An- drew Smith, Joseph Smith, William Smith, John Stephens, William Stoops, Michael Stuff- let, Samuel Stufflet. Philip Surrena, Reuben Sutton, Richard Sutton, Stephen Sutton, Aaron Taylor, Adam Taylor, James Taylor, Frances Tracy, Israel Tuthill, Jacob Vaughn, William Valentine, Simon Vanosdale, John Van Siebel, Salisbury Vincent, John Walter, Peter Walter, Daniel Wasson, John Whann, William Whann, James White, John Wilson, Benjamin Williams, Jesse Williams, Levi Wil- liams, John Witherup, Andrew Woodruff, John D. Wood, John Wooderson, Lewis Wright, Samuel Wylie.
Sugarcreek Township .- Joseph Allen, Sam- uel Allen, John Andrews, Elisha Archer, John Archer, John Armstrong, James Arthur, Robert Arthur, Benjamin August, Robert Beatty, James Boal, Francis Boal, Andrew Bowman, James Bowman, John Bowman, Joseph Bowman, William Brandon, George Brison, John Brookmire, Francis Buchanan, Nathaniel Cary, Andrew Campbell, John Car- ter, Francis Carter, Jacob Casper, William
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Christy, Hugh Clifford, Frederick Coffman, Henry Coffman, Isaac Connely, William Con- nely, Andrew Coover, Jacob Coover, Samuel Cousins, Thomas Cousins, William Cousins, William Crain, Philip Cutchall, John Cully, Samuel Dale, Joshua Davis, Alexander David- son, Yost Deets, Simon Deacon, Peter Demp- sey, William Derman, Michael Diven, Robert Dickson, William Dreffs, Robert Elliott, Elial Farr, Daniel Fleming, Ross Foster, Alexander Fowler, James Gordon, Patrick Gordon, John Gregg, Samuel Gregg, Edward Griffin, Barna- bas Griffin, Edward Hale, Archibald Hamil- ton, Hugh Hamilton, James Hamilton, Thomas Hamilton, John Hays, William Hays, James Henry, Francis Halyday, James Hulings, Mar- cus Hulings, Samuel Hulings, Robert Huston, George Ingram, James Irwine, John Irwin, Ninian Irwin, Samuel Irwin, Jacob Jennings, Alexander Johnston, Hugh Johnston, Robert Johnston, William Johnston, George Kean, John Kelly, Thomas Kelly, Robert Kelso, Philip King, Robert Martin, David Martin, James Mason, Joseph Mercer, James Miller, William Moorhead, John Murphy, John Mc- Clain, William McClain, Francis Mcclintock, Mary McCullom, David McCoombs, John Mc- Coombs, William McCombs, James McCor- mick, Mary McCormick, Alexander Mc- Dowell, Robert McElhaney, Morris McFadden, Neal McFadden, David McGeehan, John Nel- son, Y. Nicholas, Isaac Paine, William Pastoris, Edward Patchel, James Patchel, Samuel Plumer, Henry Prather, Joseph Proper, Sam- uel Proper, Dennis Pursel, John Ray, Samuel Ray, William Reed, John Reynolds, Lydia Rey- nolds, Jonah Reynolds, William Reynolds, Ja- cob Rice, Susannah Ridgway, Ebenezer Rob- erts, John Rodgers, James Ross, Richard Ross, James Russell, Ambrose Rynd, John Rynd, Noah Sage, Robert Semple, James Shaw, Hugh Shaw, Robert Shaw, Charles Stevenson, An- drew Stewart, Elijah Stewart, John Stewart,
John Stiver, James Story, Robert Story ; Chris- tian Sutley, George Sutley, Robert Sutley, George Tarr, Luther Thomas, John Todd, Elizabeth Tuthill, James Tuthill, John Tuthill, William Tuthill, Isaac Walls, Jacob Witman, John Wilson, Peter Wilson, Thomas Wilson, William Valentine.
This list of settlers is quite remarkable. When it is taken into consideration that from time immemorial the county had been simply the hunting ground of prehistoric savages, that there were no roads, bridges or fences while the early pioneers were coming, and very few even in 1800, the rate of settlement is surpris- ing. In 1790, one settler; 1794 shows a total of two; 1795 adds not more than ten or twelve, making a total of a dozen young families. But in the next half decade they came each year in multiples of the preceding one. It should also be remembered that in order to people Venango county there were no companies of settlers formed and outfitted to settle the wilds, township at a time, or, as the eastern colonists would say, "to make plantations." Our settlers came singly or in twos or threes. Only in one instance was so large a number as twenty-five induced to locate in the same vicinity, so that only a mile or two of atmosphere separated near neighbors. It was simply an irresistible impulse that touched the soul of a whole people to found better homes, larger lives. One set- tler in 1790; another in 1794; thirty, perhaps, in 1795; and a total of one thousand, one hun- dred thirty in 1800.
The large proportion of taxables among these people is very significant. There were few slackers among them. They improved their holdings. They possessed the homely vir- tues good for homes. The result of their work will help unnumbered children through all the years. But their great gift to the world follow- ing them is found in their attitude toward their own present duty, the example of their lives.
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CHAPTER II TOPOGRAPHY AND SOIL
THE WORK OF THE ALLEGHENY RIVER-THE GLENS-ELEVATIONS-GEOLOGY-VICINITY OF OII. CITY-OIL CREEK-FRENCH CREEK-SUGAR CREEK-AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES
Venango county may be described as a rect- angle with the northeast corner, and the op- posite diagonal corner, truncated. The cutting line in both cases takes away from the northern or southern boundary line about one-third of its indicated length. On the north, the county is met by Crawford and Warren counties; on the east, by Forest and Clarion ; on the south, by Butler, and on the west, by Mercer. Craw- ford county also touches the angles of the broken line on the northwest, which resemble the jutting corners of four-hundred-acre tracts. A prominent county official once said that this line looked like a "pair of stairs." Within these boundaries are inclosed six hundred and sixty- one square miles. The area is not large. It is a little less than one eighth of the terri- tory granted to William Penn by James II to discharge a debt of eighty thousand dollars- one of the best bargains ever made by an Eng- lish king for his name and for his people.
THE WORK OF THE ALLEGHENY RIVER
river is the older part. The Allegheny is older than the Mississippi. It is also probably ,the oldest river west of the Allegheny mountains except the Niagara. The time that it has been cutting into the rocks of Venango county can not be measured by the years of our well fin- ished world; but only by the aeons while the continents were emerging and growing to their present size and shape, and arranging their divine materials.
The river has had a number of names. The Delawares called it the Alligani Sipu, from a tribe which they believed once dwelt upon its banks. A London publisher spoke of the tribe as the Allegans. Lewis Evans in a map pub- lished in 1755 calls the river the Allegan. The Senecas, true to their colorful fancy, spoke of it as the O-he-u, which name the French adopted, connecting it with the Ohio, translat- ing the word literally as "La Belle" Riviére, or The Beautiful River. The Senecas were right in naming it for an inspiration, rather than for some insect tribe. It was beautiful then as it is now. But from then to now, is only from the dawn of history to the present, scarce one swing of the pendulum after ages . of the ceaseless work of the unknown river.
The surface of Venango county is quite level, or rolling only into low hills. It is, in fact, a plateau, elevated at its northern extrem- ity 1,550 feet and at its southern limit 1,475 feet above sea level. It thus has a dip toward THE GLENS the southwest of about two feet to the mile. The surface, however, is cut by the Allegheny Steep, deep valleys, rather gorges and glens, cut into the solid rock, are frequent near the river and its tributary streams not quite through the top soil to the gravel, but con- . river. The most remarkable of these are cut tinued deep into the rock strata below. The by the creeks or runs nearly to the depth of the river's bed. In some cases, they are narrow and have perpendicular walls of rock strata hundreds of feet deep. There are many changes of scenes in each gulf. Perhaps a side stream enters part way up, making a waterfall ; or one from near the top may come down in a series of falls, or as a long ribbon becoming feathery near the end. Where the floor of the glen rises sharply a cascade sings cheerfully from its active pools. Dripping from the walls work of these streams has been going on long -before Columbus sailed from Spain, before the prehistoric Indian race appeared, before the age of man, in the early infancy of verte- brate life. The Ohio discharged its waters into an interior arm of the ocean at about where its mouth now is, while the upper Mis- sissippi valley was still submerged. This, at least, is the conclusion of Dana and of other geologists. The upper part of a continental
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