USA > Virginia > City of Norfolk > City of Norfolk > History of Norfolk County, Virginia and representative citizens, V.1 > Part 26
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to have access to the air, and thus secure the aeriation required by the processes which take place in their underground branches. The knees of the cypress have long been a subject of discussion on the part of botanists, and various conjectures concerning the service which they perform have been made. A study of the region of the Mississippi Valley, which subsided during the earthquake of ISII, showed me very clearly that wherever by such accidents the vascular summits of these pro- jections were brought below the level of the summer waters, the trees inevitably died. In other cases, where by artificial dams the sur- face of the water had been raised in a swainp area, I found that the trees, the summits of which were suffused by the water in the sum- mer season, were quickly killed, while others continued to live.
It is an interesting fact that the knees of the cypress develop only where the roots upon which they rest lie beneath the surface of the water during the growing season of the year. They sometimes appear above the surface of the soil which is bare of water in the summer time. but, digging down to the place occupied by the roots, water will generally, if not al-
ways, be found so far present in the soil that it fills the excavation.
Another important fact in this connection is exhibited in the specimens of this species which grow upon elevated land secure from summer inundation, or where the trees stand on the margin of a swamp with parts of their roots on the dry land and part beneath the water. In the case where the tree is altogether removed from the chance of inundation, the
== roots bear no knees whatever, or at least they exhibit slight enlargements from point to point, which, though they indicate the posi- tions the knees might occupy, never develop into such structures. On the margin of the swamp the roots which are beneath the water will bear knees, while those in the dry soil exhibit no such protuberances, or, at most,
In the Dismal Swamp the knees of the Ataxodium never attain any considerable height above the surface, the tallest seen having an elevation of not more than three feet above the roots from which they spring. In the swamps of the Mississippi Valley, where the water of the marshes is often deeper than it is at any point in the Dismal Swamp, the knees sometimes attain an altitude of six feet or more.
The black gum contrives to secure a result similar to that attained by the taxodium by quite another contrivance of its roots. Where this tree occupies positions in which the water remains during the summer season, the roots, in all cases in which I have been able to ob- serve the facts, have the habit of arching up- ward a few feet from the base of the bole.
Where the region is only moderately wet, where the water in the summer season comes near the surface, the emergence of the roct is accomplished by a gentle upward flexure which brings its surface a little above the top of the ground ; where the water stands yet higher the whole of the root may emerge from the soil. In rare cases. where the water during the growing season stands two feet or more above
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the level of the roots, the flexure in that part of the tree is still more noticeable.
It is tolerably easy to determine the depth of inundation during the growing season by a close inspection of these root-archies of the tupulo. The bark is very rugose and in the damp swamp is frequently the seat of a con- siderable growth of annual plants. In some cases I was able to observe this coat of vege- tation on many of the root-arches around the same tree. The annual vegetation was every- where at the same height, and therefore may be taken as evidence that the roots are deeply covered by water in the summer time, but that the knee arches rise a foot or more above the surface of the water, or to about the same ex- tent as the summits of the knees of the tax- oditim.
The amount of root arching in individuals of this species as well as the development of similar knee processes in the taxodium differ considerably in the individual trees. In some forms, lying at the same heiglit as others, which are abundantly provided with these arched processes, the flexures are almost want- ing. It appeared to me, however, that in the cases where the arches are not well developed, the trees are always of an inferior growth and apparently not well reconciled to their en- vironment.
It is also a noticeable fact that the flexures of the roots do not develop in the youth of the plant, but begin to be evident after the tree has attained a diameter of a foot or more. . Some- thing of the same sort may be observed in the case of the taxodium. The older the tree the more extensive proportionately are the knee processes. A young tree an inch or two in diameter without any knees at all may often be observed growing near specimens of the same species a foot or more in diameter, all of which have abundant knee processes. It seems clear that in both of these genera the knees are features which are not developed until the plant attains a considerable size.
It appears to be a characteristic common to nearly all trees which have become reconciled
to very wet soils that their trunks are much expanded at the crown, tapering from that point upward more rapidly than trees in other . situations. The two varieties of gum and cy- press are conspicuous for this feature, It seems evident on eye inspection-1 have made no comparative measurements-that the ex- pansion of these trees at the crown where they occupy wet situations is much greater than when they occur upon relatively dry ground. Not infrequently with gums and cypresses, the diameter of the tree at the crown is over twice as great as it is at the height of 10 feet above the surface. and in some cases I have found the ratios as high as three to one. An eye in- spection. without measurement, of several other species in stations diverse as regards the amount of moisture to which they were sub- jected, appears to indicate that this expansion of the crown in wet conditions is a common feature of forest trees. It seems possible that the enlargement of the tree just above the level of permanent water may be due to the same physiological conditions which determine the development of knees such as occur in the taxodium, or of sharp flexures of the roots, like those exhibited in the nyssa. When I first observed this feature I was disposed to think that it was perhaps designed to support the trees in their somewhat insecure foothold in the soft earth of the morass. Further inspec- tion has satisfied me that this view is untenable and that the peculiarity is more likely to be due to the cause above mentioned.
ANIMAL LIFE.
The singular nature in the physical condi- tions in our morasses is marked in the animal as well as in the vegetable forms which in- liabit their areas. Where a morass occupies but a small surface the exceptional features of its animal forms are not usually conspicuous. The larger swamps, those which are to be measured by square miles, generally have a peculiar fauna. The characteristics exhibited by the animals which occupy our morasses are
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usually related to the nature of the vegetation and the peculiar wetness of the earth. Thus, owing to the fact that nut-bearing trees are relatively rare, the arboreal rodents are gen- erally absent. The inundated nature of the soil makes it unfit for occupation by the sub- terrancan forms of that group. Thus this important order of mammals is imperfectly represented in our larger morasses. So. too. with the reptilian forms. Certain of our ser- pents which have accustomed themselves to dry situations are generally absent from the swamps. The predaceous mainmals, such as the fox and wolf, find these marshy lands un- suited to their needs. ' The species of birds which nest upon the ground are also rare. The birds generally, excepting aquatic forms, are less plentifully developed in our marshy areas than in the upland districts.
I have not yet been able to undertake any systematic inquiry into the animal life of our inundated lands. My general observations. however, show that the biological conditions of these areas are such as to afford an interest- ing subject for research. Thus the swamps of Ohio and other States north of Kentucky contain a good many species which are other- wise limited to Tennessee and other Southern States. It seems probable that these outlying groups of southern fauna occupying northern districts will be discovered in other sections of the country.
I have already noted the fact that a num- ber of species of trees show a singularly specialized structure which fits them to the peculiar environment which the swamps af- ford. It seems likely that this reconciliation with the environment will also be exhibited in the animal species which inhabit these areas. From the facts which have met my observa- tion. I am inclined to think that the fishes of our larger and more isolated swamp areas will be found to present certain interesting peculi- arities.
Owing to the isolation of the swamp areas, the species have been kept from the com- mingling of blood which necessarily occurs in
extensive river systems. Thus the smaller fishes which inhabit the pools of our swamps have secured something like the measure of isolation which characterizes the inhabitants of our caverns, and it seems likely that the species of the detached morasses may have a trace of the same specific and generic peculi- arities which are to be noted in the under- ground world. With this brief sketch of the conditions of animal life in the swamps, I will now; proceed to give a few notes which I have been able to make on the fauna of the Dismal Swamp district.
Bird life is only moderately abundant, and is characterized by the general absence of the ground forms. The serpents which tolerate moist ground are of frequent occurrence, but are not known to present any peculiarities of : species. The mammalian life is more peculiar than that of the other groups. The rodents are conspicuous by their absence. Bears are remarkably abundant. About 200 are killed each year within the limits of this field of morasses. Deer are now rare, but they have been somewhat plenty. The most peculiar feature in the mammalian life is the fact that large numbers of wild horned cattle are found within the morass. These have feralized from domestic herds about the swamps. Estimates as to the number of these creatures vary con- siderably. I am inclined to think that there are probably about 500 now living within this area. They are extremely wild, and when hunted are often dangerous to the sportsman. Several observant persons have reported to i me that fierce combats frequently take place between the bulls and the bears. John G. Wallace. of Wallaceton, states that he has ser- eral times heard the bellowing of the horned cattle when they were engaged in such com- bats. Another observer stated to me that some - years ago he found a bull and a bear lying dead : beside each other, both having been killed in the combat.
It is said that the hears have a peculiar habit in their assault upon the horned cattle : they spring upon their backs and rend the
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muscles which support the licad of their prey, and thus escape the danger from its horns. The evidence as to this peculiar habit rests upon the fact that where the horned cattle have been killed in their contests with the bears the neck muscles are found divided.
I have not myself had an opportunity of seeing any of these cattle, but it is stated that they are generally of a black color and of small size. They appear to range through all portions of the swamp, but during the breed- ing season to prefer the slightly elevated por- tions where the canes abound. They feed mainly on the tender shoots of the cane, and are said to dwell generally in herds of from 20 to 50 individuals. Occasionally members of the wild herds are tolled out into the culti- vated fields by offerings of salt, and are led to join the domestic cattle. The greater part of the wild cattle, however, evidently live for generations without obtaining access to saline materials, a fact which shows that salt is not really necessary to them, for within the morass they can have no opportunity whatever of obtaining it. There are no salt springs, the tidal rivers which penetrate to the swamp are all fresh and there are no licks, such as were afforded by the slightly saline clays of the Mississippi Valley, to which the buffalo abundantly resorted.
METHOD OF DRAINING.
During the time when slaves were held in this part of the country, a considerable por- tion of the morasses which originally con- stitute the Dismal Swamp was drained. This task was accomplished by the simplest engin- eering expedients. Ditches having a depth rarely exceeding six feet were dug wherever convenience dictated. Each farmer planned the system for his own land without any re- lation to a general scheme for improvement. It is evident that the work was done in most cases without even the surveyor's aid. The aggregate labor expended in this ill-directed system has been great. Properly applied. it
would have gone far toward winning the whole of the unreclaimed swamps between Al- bemarle Sound and the James River to. agri- culture. There are hundreds of miles of these trenches but few of which exhibit any concep- tion of the conditions which should have regu- lated their construction. In any scheme for the improvement of this region, the existing system of ditches will have to be neglected save in so far as the ditches may serve for the drainage of the small patches of land for which they were contrived.
There can be no question that the whole of the swamp area of this district, excepting certain small strips near the mouths of the larger indentations which extend northward from Albemarle Sound, is ready to be won to tillage by simple and comparatively inexpen- sive improvements. The average inclination of the surface is about 20 inches per mile, and this is sufficient to give a strong current to water flowing in ditches having a width on the water surface of four feet and a total depth of water of three feet. The character of the soil is very favorable for such improve- ments. The considerable amount of vegetable matter in the earth causes the canals which are not used for navigation to maintain their banks in good order. There are few tree trunks buried in the swamp deposits, as is well known by the excavation of ditches contrived for conveying timber. The aggregate length of these channels is at least 20 miles. At no point in their various courses have they en- countered any considerable difficulty from the trunks of trees lying prostrate beneath the surface. The rank growth of the vegetation, particularly the roots which seize upon the banks of the canals. will save all costs for revetting their slopes.
In devising a plan for the drainage of this area, it will be necessary to take account of the existing canals; for. although these have not been contrived for the purpose of desic- cation and are in certain ways unsuited to that object, the constructions are so large that it will be necessary to introduce them into the
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scheme of drainage works. If the principal canal, that which is now navigable to vessels. were deprived of its locks and a similar course were taken with the Jericho canal or ditch, ex- tending from Lake Drummond to the James River near Suffolk, the result would be that a strip of land bordering on these water-ways would, provided the embankment on either side of the water-ways were cut through at a sufficient number of places to permit the exit of the water, at once become sufficiently dry for the uses of agriculture. The drain- age level of the swamp on either side of the main channel would be lowered about five feet. This alone would afford a base level low enough for the drainage of at least four miles west of the canal and about two miles east of it. The difference in the distance to which the ditches might be made effective would be determined by the slightly varying slope from the west toward the sea. Along the Jericho ditch the drainage would be less effective be- cause of the small size and shallowness of that excavation. At present the ditch averages not more than 15 feet of effective width with a depth of not more than three feet. The level of the water, moreover, is nearer the general level of the swamp than in the case of the Dis- mal Swamp Canal.
If the level of the bottom of the Dismal Swamp Canal were lowered to 12 feet below the present level of the water with an average width of 12 feet and an average depth of water with the new plane of four feet, it would doubtless furnish a sufficient exit way for all the swamp waters which would be drained to it from either side, and it would then be pos- sible by branch ditches to unwater the whole country on the western sde of its path and nearly the whole of the area to the east. At the same time the depth of the water remain- ing in the canal would be sufficient for all the purposes of transportation which would arise from the agricultural use of this area. Tribu- tary ditches, starting with the depth of eight or 10 feet and a width of water-way of about eight feet, should be extended with diminish-
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ing size and depth to near the western margin of the swamp. They would probably not need to be nearer together than intervals of two miles. Their average lengthi would be about eight miles and thus the total length of this system would be about 80 miles. Smaller and shallower ditches, having a width of water-way of not more than four feet where they connected with the main channels, would need to be carried in a general north and south direction from the secondary channels so that no portion of the surface would be more than a mile from the water-way. Even smaller ditches would have to be extended across the surface so that no considerable portion of the area would be without a channel for its flood waters in the summer season. Practical ex- perience in the district seems to indicate that with this kind of drainage channels the soil would, after it had been subjugated to the plow, remain in a fit condition for tillage.
In the section east of the Dismal Swamp Canal, a gentle though slight slope toward the sea would make the drainage toward the chan- nel of that canal less easy than on the northern slope. It is probable, however, that within the range of three miles which would include the greater portion of that area the channel of the canal would, if supplemented by side ditches, afford an adequate means for unwa- tering the land. The region yet further to the east would have to be made the subject of an independent scheme of drainage which should discharge the waters into other main ways.
If these excavations could be accomplished only by hand labor it is doubtful if, even with the present demand for agricultural lands. it would prove profitable to undertake the drain- age of this morass. But recent improvements in methods of excavation make it possible to unwater land of this description at a relatively small cost as compared with older methods of hand labor. The whole-of the work can be accomplished by machine dredging,' the en- gines being operated by steam power. In the principal ditch the ditching can be done freat the usual form of boats and in the smaller
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channels the apparatus can be conveyed along the path of its work by means of movable tramways on either side of the ditch.
After the main works are constructed, the cost of cutting away the timber and of first plowing the land will. according to trust- worthy information given by various persons who have of late years undertaken such work in this district, amount to about $30 per acre. In the average present condition of the for- ested portions of the swamp the return for this labor in the way of timber may amount to about $60 per acre, which probably would meet the expenses of clearing the forest away and of providing the smaller drainage chan- nels.
The area which would be won to tillage by such a system of drainage, though only a portion of this swamp district. is about 250 square miles or 160,000 acres. 1 am assured by various trustworthy farmers that when first won to the plow this land has a measure of fertility which will enable the tiller to reckon an annual product of from So to 100 bushels of shelled maize per acre. It is. therefore, safe to estimate the money value of this area when thus improved at not less than $16,000,000.
in the peaty matter and thus destroy the germs as well as the parent trees. On these surfaces, which include at present perhaps as much as a tenth of the swamp area, the forest wins its way in a very slow manner. The swamps are principally occupied by annual plants. With the increase of the population around the margin of the swamp, these fires are apt to become more common. When they happen, they cannot be extinguished save by heavy rains, and they make the use of the swamp. except on certain selected areas. ineligible as a nursery of timber. We thus find that if the swamp were brought to the use of agriculture at an aggregate cost of say S4,000.000. tlie : gain to the interests of the community would be very large. On the one side of the ac- count, we may have a revenue from the timber which is not likely to exceed Sioo.cco per an- num; and on the other an income from agri- cultural products which would doubtless ex- ceed $2,000,000 per annum, while the cost of improvement at the present rate of interest on money would not exceed $200,000 a vear.
This region is very favorably placed for cultivating and marketing garden crops. Al- ready the Norfolk district furnishes a large share of the garden products used by four or five million of people dwelling in the cities be-
Against this estimate of the tillage value of this region we must set such returns as it now makes in the way of timber products. I . tween the James River and the coast of Maine. have not been enabled to obtain any accurate statistics as to the profits derived from the timber industry now carried on in this swamp. Nearly all of the original forest has been re- moved, culled by the woodmen or destroyed by fire. `The supply of exported timber is gathered from the growth of cypress, juniper and pine. From all the data I have been able to procure I am led to the conclusion that the : to increase apace, and there is no other field so aggregate profit from the timber does not ex- ceed $50,000 per annum, and that it may be much less than this amount. Year by year the value of this product is diminished through the occurrence of forest fires in the dry sea- sons, which eradicate from large areas not only the growing trees but even their seeds. Such fires burn down to a considerable depth The greater part of the territory which now furnishes these supplies has a poor soil which can be made to yield satisfactory returns only by a costly system of fertillizing. Experi- ments already made within the Dismal Swamp district shows that this soil is excellently adapted for the cultivation of vegetables. The annual demand for such garden crops is sure well suited for the enlargement of this form of agriculture as the area occupied by the morass of the Dismal Swamp district. The drainage channels could readily afford water transpor- tation to within a mile of every part of the tilled area. In a manner hereafter to be noted a large portion of the surface could. if desired. be irrigated by the higher lying waters, No-
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where else in the world is there near to great markets so large a field of land suited to gar- den crops which is not used for such purposes. If availed of for this form of tillage, the au- nual return from the land would probably not be less than $too per acre or a total of some- where near $16,ooo.ooo per annum for the region which it is proposed to drain. It would, of course, be some decades before it would be profitable to bring all this vast area into such use, but after a time of service in ordinary field crops it seems to me likely that the whole of the surface would be thus util- ized.
It will be seen by the description of the Nansemond escarpment or old bench that sey- eral considerable streams which cross that line have their head waters in the subordinate swamps lying in general at the height of set - eral feet above the western margin of the swamp. Owing to the topographic conditions of these inland merasses, they could readily be converted into great storage reservoirs in which irrigation waters would be retained. I estimate that it would be possible to store in these higher swamps for the purposes of sum- mer irrigation bodies of water having 24 | tion.
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