USA > Indiana > Knox County > History of Knox and Daviess Counties, Indiana : from the earliest time to the present; with biographical sketches, reminiscences, notes, etc. ; together with an extended history of the colonial days of Vincennes, and its progress down to the formation of the state government > Part 51
USA > Indiana > Daviess County > History of Knox and Daviess Counties, Indiana : from the earliest time to the present; with biographical sketches, reminiscences, notes, etc. ; together with an extended history of the colonial days of Vincennes, and its progress down to the formation of the state government > Part 51
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Shale, black, sheety, bituminous.
565
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
per cent, while the ash varies from 2 to 6 per cent. Coal X varies from 2 to 5 feet in thickness. It outcrops in many places and is being worked in several places. It is pure, containing less ash and fixed carbon and more gas than Coal L. An analysis of Coal X from Section 23, Town 3, Range 7, gave 1.75 per cent of ash, 50.75 of fixed carbon, 1 of water and 46.5 of gas. Over Coal X is usually found a heavy-bedded, coarse-grained grayish- brown sandstone. This Coal X may be seen outcropping from the mouth of Veal Creek to Edwardsport, in Knox County.
LOCAL DETAILS.
On Section 6, Town 2, Range 7, on the old canal bank, the following section was taken:
Feet.
Covered slope.
0
Soft, shaly sandstone
7
Soft, gray sandstone. 6
Coal X.
4
Fire clay
0
This mine was one of the earliest worked in the county. The following is the section near the mouth of Veal's Creek :
Feet.
Covered space
4
Shaly sandstone.
20
Coal X 2.3
Fire clay
0
Silicious shale
5
Hard blue limestone.
Calc. shale, fossiliferous.
2
Pyritiferous calcareous shale with fossils.
5
Hard blue limestone.
1
Black bituminous sheety shale.
2
Coal K, exposed above low water
2
In the limestone and calcareous shale over Coal K of this sec- tion Productus punctatus, P. cora, P. elegans, P. semireticula- tus, Aviculopecten providensis, Bellerophon carbonarious, Chon- etes mesoloba, Orthis Rushensis and Cyathoxonia prolifera were found. The sandstone overlying Coal X appears on the hills near Pond Creek Mills, in Knox County. Between Washington and Montgomery, the sandstone over Coal X may be seen in sev- eral places. Toward the eastern side of the county Coal K
566
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
changes from a caking to a semi-block or possibly block, and be- comes thinner, often too much so to work. Near Montgomery it ranges from one and a half to three feet in thickness. At Mont- gomery the limestone over Coal K is about one foot thick, and the coal two feet. On Section 7, Township 2, Range 5, it is three feet thick. On Section 20, Township 2, Range 5, the following strata appear:
Soil and clay
10
Silicious shale, with alternating bands of iron ore. 20
Gray, silicious limestone.
2
Shale, place of Coal K. 4
Fire clay
3
Flaggy sandstone.
1
Sandstone and shale
20
Coal I ?..
0
Fire clay
2
Good iron ore mixed with shale. 14
Silicious shale. 20
Bed of sugar creek
0
In the vicinity of Alfordsville, on Sections 34, 33 and 26, Coal K has been mined. It contains considerable sulphur, but in other respects is good. The following strata are taken from Sec- tion 9, Town 1, Range 5, three miles southwest of Alfordsville:
Feet.
Covered space. 20
Shale, argillaceous, with bed of white clay and sandstone 70
Limestone, hard, blue, fossiliferous 3
Shale, arenaceous.
8
Shale, black bituminous 2
Coal K, semi-block. 2
Feet.
At the mill the limestone is 6 inches thick, and contains Productus, Spirifer, Pinna and Chonetes. Coal K outcrops near Glendale, Harrison Township, in several places, on Sections 27, 28, 29, 33, 34 and elsewhere, and usually does not exceed 2} feet in thickness, and is generally less. An analysis of Coal K, from four different mines in the vicinity of Glendale, gave fixed carbon from 49.5 to 60.5 per cent, the average being 55.1 per cent; ash, from 1.5 to 2 per cent; gas, from 30.5 to 42 per cent, averaging 37 per cent. The coke was brilliant, puffed, porous, and sometimes lamellar. It is doubtful if any workable seams of coal exist in the southern part of the county between K and A. Coal I is almost always good block. It outcrops and is
567
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
encountered in wells. It varies 23 to 4 feet in thickness. At Montgomery the following is the section:
Feet. 8
Soil and clay.
Brown shale, with ironstone.
6
Dark, fossiliferous limestone. 11
Black, bituminous, sheety shale.
11
Coal K-caking
1+
Arenaceous shale.
46
Blue, argillaceous shale.
1}
Coal I-block.
4
Fire clay
6
The following section is taken from a shaft on the Hay's farm, five miles east of Washington:
Feet.
Clay.
10
Sandstone.
2
Shell rock and gravel ..
2
Blue clay
6
Soft sandstone.
4
Hard sandstone
10
Hard limestone.
6
Sandstone.
10
Hard sandstone.
10
Soapstone.
15
Black slate.
3
Fire clay
11
Lime rock
1
Fire clay.
2
Hard rock.
1
Fire clay.
6
Hard rock.
2
Soapstone
6
Coal I?
4
Fire clay
3+
Hard rock.
2
Fire clay
4
Hard rock.
1
Fire clay
4
Hard rock.
1
Hard black slate.
1
Soapstone.
5
Fire clay
5
Hard rock.
1
Chalk slate
1
Black slate.
13
Hard rock.
1
Coal K?
568
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
At Clark's Station Coal K is one foot, two inches thick, and Coal I three feet; on Section 29, Town 3, Range 5 Coal I is four feet, three inches thick. On the west half of the northwest quar- ter of Section 29, Town 3, Range 5, the following is the section:
Feet.
Surface.
33
Sandstone.
6
Dark gray slate.
8
Coal K ?.
2
Fire clay.
6
White sandstone.
4
Dark gray slate.
15
Coal J?
1+
Sandstone.
3+
Black slate
94
Coal I.
41
Near this shaft, and on the same section, is this bore:
Feet.
Surface
32
Hard gray rock.
8
Dark gray slate.
24
Coal K ?.
Fire clay
1
Sandstone
3
Gray slate.
5
Coal J ?.
1}
Fire clay
2
Sand rock.
4
Black slate
10
Coal I.
5
On Section 19, Town 3, Range 5, was this bore:
Feet.
Surface.
32
Dark gray slate
14
Black slate.
4
Coal
Hard gray rock.
5
Black slate
10
Coal I.
41
On the east half of Section 36, Town 3, Range 6, is the fol- lowing section:
Feet. 22
Surface soil.
5
Soft coal
Pale gray slate. 81
Dark gray slate. 7
569
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
Feet. 3
Black slate.
Coal K.
1
Fire clay
2
Ashy slate.
4
Dark gray slate
4
Blue sandstone
10
Coal I.
2}
Fire clay
3
Ashy slate. :.
4
Dark gray slate.
15
Coal G.
14
On Section 19, Town 3, Range 5, was the following shaft: Feet.
Surface
46
Gray slate.
4
Black slate.
4
Coal.
Hard gray rock
4
Black slate.
4
Coal
1
Black slate
Coal I.
The following is a shaft at the Billings' farm, Sections 29 and 32, Town 3, Range 6:
Feet.
Surface.
24
Slate rock.
51
Pale gray slate.
6
Dark gray slate
14
Black sand rock
2
Slate.
2
Fire clay
2
Ashy slate.
16
Blue sand rock
2
Black slate. 18
5
Blue slate.
10
Black slate
10
Gray slate
1
Fire clay
Fire clay.
The sections shown above are highly instructive, and show a great want of persistency in the various coal seams regarding thickness and continuance. Coal A is subconglomerate and out- crops in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the county. At Epsom it is a caking coal, one and a half feet thick. It is the same on Section 35, Town 5, Range 6. It is found in wells all
570
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
around Clark's Prairie. There seem to be two strata of coal A in the county, the upper averaging about eighteen inches in thickness, and the lower two and a half feet, the latter being the most persistent seam. It has been worked in numerous places in Towns 4 and 5, Ranges 5 and 6. A few miles north of Washing- ton the country across the county appears to have been subjected to powerful denuding forces, which swept away the upper part of the coal measures. Coal A probably covers the entire area of the county. In some parts of the county there are six seams, giving an average of nineteen feet of coal in the aggregate. It was esti- mated by the State Geologist that an aggregate of eight feet of coal in the average extended over the entire county, 271,000 acres. The citizens of the county need not fear of exhausting the quantity. Coal L, at Washington, is the best caking coal yet mined in the Western coal field. It is excellent for gas and coke.
IRON, CLAY, OCHRE, ETC.
In the northern part, bog iron ore is often found, several valu- able fields being on Clark's Prairie. From 40 to 50 per cent of metal can be obtained from this ore. Clay ironstone is found in numerous places, particularly around Alfordsville. Ochre is also found in this vicinity. The massive sandstone over coal X, in the hills north of Washington, furnishes a durable building stone. Good limestone, four feet thick, and of any length and width, may be obtained on Aikman Creek. It takes a fine polish, but is not durable for outside work. Abundance of good clay for brick and tile abounds.
THE PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF TIMBER.
Ash, black, Fraxinus sambucifolia, low land; ash, white, Fraxi- nus americana, low land; alder, black, Alnus glauca, swampy ground; beech, red, Fagus ferruginea, upland; beech, white, Fagus sylvestris, upland; birch, black, Betula lenta, low land; buckeye, Pavia lutea, low land; cherry, wild, Cerasus vir- giniana, low land; coffee nut, Gymnocladus canadensis, low land; cottonwood, Populus canadensis, river banks; dogwood, Cornus florida, swamps; elder, box, Acer negundo, low land; elm, white, Ulmus americana, low lands; elm, red, Ul-
571
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
mus rubra, low land; gum, black, Nyssa sylvatica, low land and upland; gum, sweet, Liquidamber styraciflua, low land; hazel nut, Corylus americana, swamps; hackberry, Celtis crassi- folia, low land; hickory, common, Juglans, tomentosa, uplands; hickory, pignut, Juglans porcina, upland; hickory, shellbark, Juglans squamosa, upland; ironwood, Carpinus ostrya, low land ; locust, black, Robinia pseudo-acacia, low land; locust, honey, Gled- itsia triacanthos, low land; linn, (basswood) Tilia americana, low land; maple, soft, Acer rubrum, low land; maple, sugar, Acer sac- charinum, low land; mulberry, Morus rubra, low land; oak, black jack, Quercus ferruginea, low land; oak, white, Quercus alba, low land; oak, red, Quercus rubra, low land; oak, black, Quercus tinc- toria, low land; oak, chestnut, Quercus, prinus-palustris, upland ; oak, water, Quercus aquatica, swamps; pawpaw, Annona triloba, low land underbrush ; persimmon, Diospiros virginiana, hills and low lands; poplar, Lyriodendrum tulipifera, hills; red bud, Cercis canadensis, low land undergrowth; sassafras, Laurus sassafras, hills and low lands; spicewood, Laurus benzoin, upland under- brush; sycamore, Acer pseudo-platanus, river banks; willow, white, Salix alba, river banks; walnut, white, Juglans cathartica, low land; walnut, black, Juglans nigra, low land. In the north- ern part of the county the growth is principally oak.
CHAPTER II.
COMPILED BY JOHN WOOLDRIDGE, A. M.
INDIAN HISTORY-THE ATTACK ON MCGOWEN, SMITH AND PERRY-THE FORTS AND BLOCK-HOUSES-THE KILLING OF BOGARD AND HATHA- WAY-THE DEATH OF BIG INDIAN-THE MURDER OF THOMAS EAGLE-SMOTHERS, THE AVENGER-INDIAN ALARMS-THE RANGERS -OCCUPANTS OF THE FORTS.
T THE difficulties with the Indians in Indiana were incidental to the efforts of Gov. Harrison to break up the Confederacy at the head of which was Tecumseh and his brother, the Shawnee Prophet, the headquarters of whom were at Prophetstown. The general history of these efforts of Gov. Harrison, resulting in the
38
572
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
battle of Tippecanoe November 7, 1811, is sufficiently detailed in all general histories of the United States not to require recital in this connection. But the incidents with which the early set- tlers of Daviess County were immediately connected, and in which some of them were personally engaged, are necessarily here introduced. William McGowen has been mentioned as one of the earliest settlers. He lived, as has been previously stated, near the present site of Mt. Pleasant, in Martin County, and kept a ferry across the East Fork of White River, near his home.
THE ATTACK ON M'GOWEN, SMITH AND PERRY.
One evening, early in the spring of 1812, just after Mr. McGowen had retired, an Indian put his gun through an opening about a foot square in the wall of his log cabin and fired at him as he lay in bed, lodging several buckshot under his left arm, from the effects of which he almost instantly expired. This . Indian, or Indians, if there were more than one, was not pursued. Not long after this first painful incident, John and William Smith and a Mr. Perry, while carrying provisions from "the set- tlement," as Washington was then called, to the men at McGowen's ferry, were discovered by three Indians while crossing a small prairie. The Indians waylaid them at what was then called the "narrows," and near the farm since known as the Houghton farm. They fired upon the white men, lodging two balls in Perry's back, and sending one ball through John Smith's thigh and two through William Smith's hat. After thus emptying their guns they rushed upon the white men, who, by throwing the loads off their shoulders, were enabled to outrun their enemy and escape to the ferry without further injury.
THE ERECTION OF BLOCK-HOUSES.
The recurrence of such difficulties as these clearly demon- strated to our early pioneers the necessity for measures of mutual protection and defense against the common enemy. Hence the erection of suitable forts, suitably located. The entire number of these forts erected in Daviess County was ten, but only five of the ten were erected in 1812. These five were as follows, with their locations: Hawkins' Fort, located on Hawkins' farm, on the
573
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
southeast quarter in Section 32, Township 3, Range 7; Comer's Fort, on the southeast quarter in Section 4, Township 2, Range 7; Coleman's Fort, some distance south of Comer's; Purcell's Fort, in the Purcell neighborhood, and Ballow's Fort, on the northwest quarter in Section 9, Township 2, Range 7. The other five were as follows: Richard Palmer's; David Flora's, built across Main Street from, and almost directly opposite the Meredith House; Ebenezer Jones, about one and a quarter miles south from Wash- ington; John Aikman's, on the southwest quarter of Section 10, Township 2, Range 7, and one on Prairie Creek, about 300 feet west of the site of the present postoffice at Lettsville.
OCCUPANTS OF THE FORTS.
The following is a list of the heads of families that assembled in each of the first five forts named: Hawkins' Fort-Cornelius Bogard, Eli Hawkins and a Mr. Curry, the young men being Charner, Eli, Joseph and William Hawkins. Comer's Fort- Friend Spears, James and Thomas Aikman, Ebenezer Jones, Alex- ander Stevens, Chris. Gregory, John Stringer, William White, John Wallace, the widow Wallace and two sons, the widow Ellis, Vance Jones, Ephraim Thompson, E. Ragsdale, Thrice Stafford and Alexander Stephenson. There was a large number of young men in this fort, among them Wiley R. Jones, Jesse Hallem, William Phillips, John and James Stafford, Samuel Aikman, John and Josiah Wallace; John, David and William Ellis; Colman Morgan and Wesley Wallace; John Ragsdale and John Thomp- son. Coleman's Fort-Joshua Reeves, Henry Edwards, Samuel Comer, John Smith, a Mr. Perry, Alexander Hays, J. Waters, J. Freeland, Amos Rogers, Simon Nicholas, Abraham Rodarmel and Robert Hays. The young men were John, Hugh and three other Edwards boys, and William Perry. Purcell's Fort-Robert Brat- ton, Andrew Little, Daniel Gregory, Josiah Culbertson, John For- den, "Obe " and William Flint, Richard Palmer, Henry Mattingly and a Mr. Carland. The young men were John Bratton, John, Joseph, Samuel and Josiah Culbertson. Ballow's Fort-John, Thomas and William Horrall, Jeremiah Lucas, Charles Sinks, Richard Steen, Thomas Scales and Nathan Davis. Young men and boys: George Mason and Fleming Ballow; John, James and
574
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
Samuel Steen, and Salem Sinks. These names comprise a list of nearly, if not quite all the male inhabitants of Daviess County, at the breaking out of troubles with the Indians.
DESCRIPTION OF A BLOCK-HOUSE.
It will now be appropriate to record such other Indian difficul- ties as occurred within the limits of the county, or in which in- habitants of Daviess County were specially interested by partici- pation. These Indian troubles will, however, be preceded by a brief description of one of the forts and block-houses used as places of refuge. The fort was usually about 150 feet square. A trench about twenty inches wide and three feet deep was dug, into which were set timbers twelve feet long with sharpened tops, some round, others split. The earth was then firmly packed on either side of the timbers. Near the middle of the west wall was a gateway for wagons. Within the enclosure was a hewed-log house, 25x18 feet in dimensions. It was a two-story building, the upper story being reached by means of a ladder. At the northeast and south- west corners were block-houses, in which lived some of the inhab- itants, while others built huts of various sizes and forms accord- ing to their taste and means. The block-houses were two stories in height, the lower story being about eighteen feet square, and the upper about twenty feet square, the projection of two feet being on the two outer sides of the fort. If, however, a block-house were built independent of a fort, it had a projection on each side. The manner of life in the forts was very simple, the food consisting of corn bread, a little meat, a few potatoes, turnips, cabbage, pump- kins and hominy. No wheat was raised at that early day.
THE MURDER OF BOGARD AND HATHAWAY.
Not long after the erection of the earliest forts a serious affair occurred on Steele Prairie. A few families, having built some cabins there, were moving in their household goods. While un- loading their second load they were attacked by Indians, and two of them killed, the older Mr. Hathaway outright and W. Bogard after a protracted struggle in self-defense. Old Mr. Sinks was shot through the left shoulder, and Richard Hathaway through the neck. The two latter were in the wagon handing out the goods,
575
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
the younger Hathaway falling down in the wagon in a faint when shot. Upon the firing of the guns and the yelling of the Indians, the four horses attached to the wagon took fright and ran to the lower end of the prairie. By this time young Hathaway had re- covered from his faint, and he and Mr. Sinks, having detached the horses from the wagon by cutting the hame strings, attempt- ed to ride two of them back to the fort, but the rough gait of the horses irritated their wounds to such a degree that they were obliged to walk. A Miss Case, who had been left at some sta- bles a short distance from where the killing of Hathaway and Bogard occurred, haltered a two-year-old colt and rode nine miles to the nearest fort (Hawkins') to give the alarm. The at- tack having been made about sundown, most of her journey was accomplished by night-a feat requiring no small degree of cour- age. Upon her arrival at Hawkins' Fort, runners were dispatched to three other forts-Comer's, Purcell's and Ballow's. As many as could procure horses collected at Hawkins' Fort, and about 3 o'clock the next morning set out for Steele Prairie, where the murders had been committed. On their way up, they unknow- ingly passed the two wounded men, Sinks and Hathaway, who, up- on hearing them approach and supposing them to be Indians, retired from the path in order to escape notice. The horsemen having passed on, the two wounded men returned to the path and proceeded to the fort, arriving there some time before noon. Here they first heard of Miss Case's heroism.
Upon arriving at the place where Bogard and Hathaway lay dead upon the ground, a portion of the little band of warriors made arrangements to carry the two dead bodies back to the fort, and in due time, assisted by those remaining, deposited the mangled corpses in the present Maysville Cemetery, the first in- terment to occur in that resting-place for the dead. Investiga- tions made at the scene of the murder led to the conclusion that seven Indians had taken part in the attack, from the finding of seven beds or nests, each evidently having been occupied by one person, and so artfully constructed as to conceal its occupant from view. Those of the horsemen not returning with the two dead bodies attempted to find the Indian trail. This, however, was very difficult to do. From what could be discovered, it was
576
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
concluded that the Indians were making for the mouth of Eel River. But our pursuers, after crossing Smothers' Creek, skirt- ing along the edge of the river bottom, passing through English's Prairie, through the timber and on through Owl Prairie, and, having entirely lost what feeble traces of a trail they thought they had occasionally discerned, came to a halt. It was now past sundown. A portion of the company built camp-fires, and the remainder went on still a few miles further up the country, but failing to find any new traces of the red men's footsteps, they returned to the camp. During the night, upon consultation, it was concluded useless to further pursue the Indians, as, from all that could be observed, they had crossed to the west side of the river, and so made good their escape. All therefore returned.
THE KILLING OF BIG INDIAN.
In 1813 another incident occurred, in which, instead of a white man, an Indian lost his life. Palmer's Fort was built early in the spring of this year. One rainy night three Indians walked around this fort, and in the morning their footprints were dis- covered. A very large dog, owned by a man named Baker, living in the fort, scented the Indians and started on their trail. The men, armed and on horseback, immediately followed them to Prairie Creek. The Indians had crossed the creek on a drift opposite the site of the old block-house, built that spring by Capt. Paterson, but then abandoned by him. They had evidently occupied the block-house during the latter part of the night, and had baked a johnny-cake on a board before the fire, out of some corn meal left there by Capt. Paterson. Mr. Baker's large dog and some of the men easily followed the Indians across the creek on the drift, but it was found necessary to swim the animals across, which caused considerable delay. While this was in progress, two Indians came out of a house and darted off at a full run. When the last horse had been swum across, a third and very large Indian came out of the house and followed his com- panions. The white men, seven in number, and all well mounted, started in full pursuit, preceded by the dog. The country be- tween Prairie and Smothers' Creeks then consisted of sandy ridges, covered with oak bushes, small prairies, marshes, and ponds,
577
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
through which the Indians kept straight on. This it was impos- sible for the mounted men to do, for their horses would have stuck fast in the mire; hence, considerable time was lost by making more or less wide detours. Time was also lost in cross- ing Smothers' Creek, which, like Prairie Creek, was too high for fording. But upon reaching the upper ground of White River bottom, the white men, guided by the dog, had so well kept the trail and had so nearly overtaken the Indians, as to commence firing upon them. The large Indian who had, during the entire chase, which was very exciting, kept in the rear, at length re- ceived a slight wound in his right knee. He then climbed a large hackberry tree, and made two attempts [to shoot his pur- suers, but each time the powder flashed in the pan. Being de- fenseless, he was overpowered and slain, after, however, giving his companions time to escape. This was the only Indian killed during those troublous times.
THE MURDER OF THOMAS EAGLE.
Some four or five years afterward, a number of friendly Indians were collected on what is now called Owl Prairie. Hearing of their presence, a number of settlers from Washington and vicinity went up to trade with them, taking along powder, lead, tobacco and whisky. Among those who went up were Obed Flint, a Mr. Frost and Thomas Eagle. Mr. Eagle, being a very stout man, was desir- ous of exhibiting his strength, and bantered one of the smaller Indians to let him (Eagle) throw him over the fire. With the Indian's consent, Mr. Eagle made the attempt and succeeded in throwing him only half-way over the fire, the Indian falling upon the coals and being quite severely burned. An Indian named "Big File," observing the occurrence, and not understanding the reason of the attempt by Mr. Eagle, rushed upon him and stabbed him to death with a large knife. Big File was indicted by the grand jury, but succeeded in escaping the penalty of his crime.
SMOTHERS, THE INDIAN HATER.
It is related that William Smothers, of Kentucky, whose father had been killed there by the Indians, had taken a vow of revenge, and had come to Indiana with that sanguinary object in view.
578
HISTORY OF DAVIESS COUNTY.
He had formerly lived near Owensboro, Ky., and is said to have taken as much pleasure in hunting Indians as in hunting beavers or other wild animals. Four or five dead Indians are said to have been found in his hunting grounds, two of whom he confessed to have killed by the accidental discharge of his gun. He saw one fall through a hole cut in the ice to catch fish, went to the place, but could see nothing but blood, which he supposed to have flowed from a wound accidentally inflicted upon himself by the Indian with his tomahawk, and that he had fainted, fallen through the ice into the deep water, and had thus been drowned. On another occa- sion his gun was accidentally discharged while he was passing down the creek, and immediately he heard a noise in the water, went to see what occasioned it; saw a log with blood on it, but no Indian; so supposed the Indian had fallen into the water, and becoming entangled, was unable to extricate himself, and was thus drowned. Such " accidents" became altogether too common, and Mr. Smoth- ers left for some other happy hunting ground.
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