USA > Massachusetts > Worcester County > Fitchburg > Address of the mayor, together with the annual reports for the city of Fitchburg, Massachusetts for the year .. > Part 7
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The human figure is a most necessary element in illustra- tive drawing. The difficulty of drawing the figure well and the limited amount of time now allotted to drawing make it impossible to obtain results that might be deserved. Enough special study is given to it however to bring about some pro- gress from grade to grade and to develop an appreciation of good figure representation in books, pictures, etc., and of the difficulties which such representation involves.
Object Drawing. Study of the form and appearance of objects through graphic representation develops power to see, and ability to record observations correctly.
These are the basis of industrial skill and æsthetic enjoy- ment. Such study helps to focus attention upon the object and makes the eye alert to subtle differences and discrimination. While lack of the close observation which training in represent- ation would supply leaves the mind with too few clear cut three dimensional images for the imagination and reason to draw upon.
The work in the primary grades should develop ability to
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draw well a number of objects familiar and interesting to the children and gradually increase their graphic vocabulary. In each succeeding grade the work should enable the children to draw objects with greater accuracy and expression, and in positions and combinations which demand increased effort and power.
In grade one emphasis is placed upon ability to express general characteristics so that the object may be recognized from the drawing at a glance. Results are criticised through incidental suggestion made perfectly by drawing some one thing better for the children to see.
During the first weeks the copying of simple outlines of objects from the teacher's drawings on the board, is suggested. When children are able to do so they at first follow the teacher line by line. When children are unable to begin with the pencil or crayon the outlines are copied by laying splints, pets, or lentils and drawn later. These exercises give the children their first acquaintance with the fact that putting lines together in certain directions produces pictures of objects which they recognize.
Through combining two or more figures to tell a story, for example, a chair and a table set with dishes, these exercises are related to illustrative drawing and children gain their first ex- periences in the use of the vocabulary which they are acquiring and develop a readiness to use drawing as a means of ex- pression.
The drawing of a few typical things from the objects, such as fruits, vegetables, simple toys, etc., is introduced gradually. Young children draw almost wholly from memory and the object serves at first merely to make the imagination rather than as a model to follow.
In grade two emphasis is placed upon the study of a few typical things by devoting a series of lessons to each for the purpose of enabling the children to draw these particular things well. Development of interest and ability progresses more rapidly when the children work for several consecutive lessons upon the same topic expressing it each time in a different way, for example : by drawing with the teacher, by cutting the shape from paper, drawing from the object itself, drawing the object from memory, sketching some incident involving the use
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of the object and studying pictures of the object. Each lesson thus presents some new phase and a familiar background for reference of new elements.
In grade three emphasis is placed upon the study of objects more complicated in form and upon the better representation of general proportions, directions of characteristic lines, and pro- portions of spaces between parts-but no attempt is made to teach the representation of the third dimension.
In grade four emphasis is placed upon the correct represen- tation of general shapes, proportions and characteristics. At this stage children appear to lose interest in making drawings which record merely the marked or general characteristics and begin to appreciate the proportions and peculiar characteristics of particular objects, and to show a desire to have their draw- ings look like the particular object before them.
While they realize the solidity of objects and the effects of distance and foreshortening, they are as yet too immature to analyze and reproduce these effects without more expenditure of time and effort than is justifiable. Especial emphasis is therefore placed in this grade upon the selection of character- istic view and the study of simple objects in which the perspec- tive effects of retreating rectangular surfaces are not prominent. The representation of these effects is treated merely as inciden- tal, and definite study of them is postponed until the children shall have had opportunity to acquire a trustworthy working knowledge. through necessary practice in expressing things easily understood, instead of requiring them to learn technical principles which they would have neither the time nor ability at this stage to apply.
An important phase of the teaching in this and the follow- ing grades is that of leading the child to place gradually increasing dependence upon his own power to observe rather than upon the criticism of the teacher. By comparing his drawings with the objects to discover how they can be made to look more like them, and modifying results accordingly, he acquires confidence in his ability and learns to see as he never could learn to see through involved explanations of appearances by the teacher who of necessity sees the object from a different · station point.
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Another important phase is that of alternating the manage of rapid sketches which express as much as possible by a few lines or strokes, with carefully finished drawings worked over and made as correct as possible. The first develops vigor in drawing, and ability to see and note quickly and expressively the chief characteristics, the second cultivates power to make exact records of close observation. Without the first the results tend to become mechanical and fussy, and without the second they tend to become careless and unreal.
In grade five the same general methods are employed as in grade four. More difficult objects are drawn and some emphasis placed upon the study of effects of distance and change in level, in objects involving circles.
In grade six the systematic study of perspective effects is begun and continued through grades seven and eight. The method of presentation is not that of explaining and illustrating the principles and then to apply these to the drawing of things so as to produce the desired effect, but the more logical and effective one of drawing things in different positions and then studying the drawings, comparing them with the objects, other drawings, and with pictures of similar things until by much practice the children appreciate and use what produces the desired effect. By this method the pupil learns to know when results look right, and the principle of perspective which con- stitutes the technical grammar of graphic expression are formu- lated as an expression of what he has found to be true after personal experiment.
The special study of theory relating to foreshortening con- vergence, vanishing points of converging lines, etc., is brought in incidentally later as a confirmation and formulation of prin- ciples which the pupil has already discovered and can use fairly well.
Emphasis is laid in grade six upon representing correctly the effects of foreshortening upon objects involving cylindrical, hemispherical and conical surfaces.
In grade seven emphasis is laid upon the correct represen- tation of foreshortening and convergence in rectangular objects such as on books, boxes, etc.
In grade eight emphasis is laid upon the correct represen- tation of the appearance of objects in different positions, singly
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and in various combinations, and with the aid of invisible edges, axes, diagonals, etc.
Nature Drawing. The work in this topic trains ability to represent plant life and growth and develops an appreciation of beauty in nature. It gives familiarity with forms from which many of the elements of design are derived and provides suit- able material and preparation for exact scientific study to which it is a natural introduction.
In grades one, two and three children draw twigs, leaves, flowers and plants in simple positions with colored crayons, representing the general appearance and coloring of the speci- men as well as they can, and with little detailed criticism. Results are satisfactory if the specimens are recognizable from' the drawing and gradual improvement noted.
In grades four and five the children are expected to repre- sent fairly well the growth, proportions, general charactertistics and colors of leaves, flowers and plants, using pencil, crayons, brush and ink, and to note color, and to learn to draw the specimen in different positions.
In grades six to eight flowers and plants are drawn with more detailed study and different aspects recorded, for example : by drawings made with brush and ink to show by as few strokes as possible the growth and individual characteristics of the plant, drawings with pencil to show botanical details of struc- ture, careful sketches in pencil outline and water color to record the variety and play of color, and by decorative arrangements within a given space and with a harmonious color scheme.
Design. The term design here applies to surface and structural decoration.
Development of appreciation of good design is indispensible to unlimited industrial progress, and necessary to full enjoy- ment of beauty in nature and art.
Industrial supremacy depends in great degree upon the æsthetic valtie of manufactured products, and that is deter- mined by the public taste. Æsthetic judgment cannot be imparted. It is the result of growth fostered by opportunity for sympathetic art experiences and appreciation of beauty in all things.
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The designers and art producers of each generation as well as the people who are to appreciate and encourage art by their patronage-are among the children in the public schools of the preceding generation.
Unless the instinctive desire for beauty be encouraged in these children it is unlikely that they will regain the power of expression and appreciation which they have lost. Their con- ceptions of good form, color and proportions, and the terms of art expression will be too few and too vague for use in tasteful selection and sound artistic judgment. There can be little to which beauty in nature and the work of the artist and artisan can make appeal.
The work in design aims to develop good judgment regard- ing the fitness and beauty of constructed objects through the study and making of objects and ornaments which are suitable for their use and place and that embody good construction, good proportions and relations of spaces, beautiful outlines and color combinations and consistent style. Good taste is trained by familiarity with good examples and by practice in the selec- tion, arrangement and appropriate application of the elements of design so that the decoration shall truly ornament and beau- tify, and not interfere with the construction and use of the object.
Very little effort is made in the primary grades to have children produce original designs. Young children have few ideas of design, and the presentation of simple yet excellent arrangements furnishes a foundation upon which future attempts at originality may be based. In developing taste it is much more important that the first productions be beautiful than that they be original.
In grades one and two emphasis is placed upon the follow- ing :- Practice in drawing borders of simple units to a time count, corresponding somewhat to that which it is impossible to develop by the spacing of unit laid out by dictation or with the aid of a rule. In this, as in penmanship, beautiful form and style are gained not by stopping over one result to perfect it, but by repeating the shape until the hand has mastered it and can use it with increased facility. The style gained from this work shows in the latter designs which must be worked out slowly and with pains-taking care.
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Practice is given in the placing of pegs and lentils to invent units and to make borders.
Simple forms, such as holiday souvenirs, etc., are decorated, all placing being indicated by the teacher and imitated by the children to accustom them to examples of good arrangements.
In grade three practice in making borders with more diffi- cult units and counts is undertaken. Emphasis is placed upon the following :- The invention of units and borders with pegs and lentils, with colored crayons and by paper cutting, the dec- oration of simple forms such as holiday souvenirs, book marks, covers for school papers, etc. Some arrangements being indi- cated by the teacher and some planned by the children. These designs involve borders and units previously studied.
In grade four emphasis is placed upon practice in drawing surface patterns to rythmic count, with simple units. In this the children learn to adapt simple decoration to a given space. The elements are limited to the best placing of a plain border on a folder, candle shade, cover of a box, etc., made during the time devoted to constructive work.
Children experiment for best spacing for margins and width of border lines to determine the most pleasing effect. Practice is also given in spacing well one unit or element upon a given surface, such as a floret, or a title to be printed upon a cover to be used for school papers.
In all these problems the effect of the result depends upon well related spaces. The cover titles are printed in plain, care- fully planned letters to appear neither crowded nor scattered in the space previously determined.
Application is carried further by having the children design and work out modifications of parts of models such as the sides of cardboard trays and mats, and backs of mounts for match scratches, calendars, etc., made in the manual training periods.
In grade five, emphasis upon developing appreciation of well related spaces, pleasing proportions and contours is con- tinued as a fundamental necessity in matters of taste. The problems include the application of borders, with modifications of the corners, bands as used in stripes and plaids, designs for various objects to be made of cardboard, etc., and cover designs which involve the spacing of two elements, such as the title and an initial or a small ornament.
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In grade six special problems involving different applica- tions of good spacing are undertaken. Of these one of the most important and effective is the printing of signs, quotations, cards for room doors, school calendars, etc. In order that such printing will attract attention and still be in good taste, careful planning is necessary. In connection with this work, children learn the effectiveness of good margins, dignified lettering, and well chosen spaces in advertisements, as compared with crowded printing and gaudy ornament.
Children experiment for different effects of spacing and arrangement of broad and narrow stripes for rug designs to be worked out later in weaving exercises.
In grades seven and eight, designs are planned and worked out by the boys in connection with the shop work and by the girls for weaving apparel, etc. One of the most effective problems used in these grades is the treatment of some school subject-such as history, geography, or literature, in book form. This problem necessitates a practical application of many important principles of design. The cover, title page, regular pages and illustrations, head and tail pieces, etc., each constitutes a separate problem in design.
The children study different forms of letters as illustrated by the best simple type in use, and the arrangement of pages as formed in fine examples of printing and book making.
The study-history or literature, etc .- provides the stimu- lus needed to secure the best results and the making of the book in turn adds its influence to the subject thus treated. Each phase of the topic arouses fresh interest and presents new problems in spacing and ornamentation.
Color. The study of color develops the color sense, leads to the power of discriminating between good and bad combina- tions, and the development of ability to use color in appropriate and harmonious ways.
During the first three years the children gain an acquain- tance with colors by the general use of crayons in coloring printed pictures, in illustrative, object, and nature drawing and the decoration of simple objects.
In grade one-Children learn simply to recognize six spec- trum colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, by
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finding where these occur in the room and by collecting samples of the colors shown by the teacher.
In grade two-Children memorize the six pure or standard colors as a basis for judging other colors, and learn to discrimi- nate hues of color more exactly, -by picking out objects, the colors of which are most nearly like the samples shown.
In grade three-Children learn to distinguish color values by pointing out objects, the colors of which are lighter or darker values of the color shown, and by watching and selecting colors.
In the succeeding grades the children have general practice in the use of color in connection with nature and object drawing, and learn to choose pleasing combinations appropriate for de- signs and decorative for particular purposes.
In grade four-The children study color hues, or the steps by which one color merges into another, and experiment to dis- cover how these steps are obtained. They arrange samples which they have collected to represent these steps as nearly as possible and make color charts showing these steps.
In grade five-Children study color hues and make similar charts with water colors, thus making possible more exact grading. In this grade they learn also to make flat washes of color over given areas.
In grade six-Emphasis is placed upon the study of color values, and children make charts showing values of a given color (obtained by a mixture of black or white), in a scale of five carefully graded steps, between a very light and a very dark value. They also practice mixing paints to match given samples.
In grade seven-Emphasis is laid upon the study of color intensities, and children make charts showing intensities of the same color (obtained by a mixture of another color preferably gray with the coloring full intensity or brightness) in three carefully graded steps between the color in its full strength and a gray of the same value. They also learn to mix paints to match any given sample and to produce any desired color.
In grade eight-Children study the inter-relations of hue, value and intensity, and learn to obtain harmonies of color, by copying harmonious combinations from five examples of prints, fabrics, pictures, etc., and from nature ; and by bringing given groups of colors to some degree of harmony by mixing a little
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of each with all the others, or by mixing each color with some of another.
Picture Study. The development of æsthetic appreciation enhances one's enjoyment of the beautiful in nature and in art, and enriches the content of life.
To develop any general spirit of artistic appreciation which shall raise the standard of public taste the art atmosphere must perforce be created in the public schools. The character of the art which the public of tomorrow will demand and its artists produce will depend largely upon the kind of training the children receive in the schools today, and upon the extent to which they are made familiar with works of art, which record the experiences, aspirations and ideals of the best of those who have gone before.
It is doubtful if attempts to develop æsthetic appreciation of works of art by direct study are of much value before the high school age.
In the preceding years however it is important that the children's delight in pictures, and the use of drawing, color , and design be stimulated and encouraged, and their interest in the beauty of common things and surroundings awakened.
A trustworthy foundation for the more intelligent and thoughtful appreciation which can be gradually developed later by direct study is thus provided.
The continued use of lines, tones and colors in the elemen- tary grades gives the children constant practice in expressing their ideas and observations by the same means that the artist himself employs.
Such attempts to use the terms of art expression are neces- sary to that appreciation which gives the fullest pleasure.
The careful selection and grading of pictures to suit the age of the children is important.
The value of a picture for any grade does not depend solely upon its artistic merit.
The fullest enjoyment in childhood of the art that is within the realm of childhood's comprehension is the best preparation for artistic appreciation in maturity.
First impulses toward æsthetic enjoyment which may later develop into a fine appreciation of art may come from well drawn current illustrations protraying those experiences and
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subjects which interest children, as well as from the world's masterpieces.
It is a mistake to suppose that any picture will do simply because it is a masterpiece. It must be selected with reference to the child's range of experience lest great pictures grow to seem commonplace before the time for appreciation of them has arrived.
The artistic value of a picture is not wholly in the informa- tion it brings. The awakening of feelings which will later de- velop into æsthetic enjoyment, is best secured through the stimulus of good pictures upon the imagination. The analysis of the composition of masterpieces hinders rather than helps the child's appreciation of them.
A potent means of developing intelligent appreciation is the selection of some topic and the making of sketches, and collection of pictures illustrating this from all available sources. In leading to the appreciation of local subjects, for example of hills, wood, lake, or river pictures by children living near them, an excellent preparation is made by interesting the children in making notes of their observations in sketch books, of different aspects of their surroundings, at twilight, evening, in storm, etc. These sketches should include general effects, particular details, and some color notes. In addition to these sketches the children should collect from magazines and other sources, pictures and illustrations of landscape details, rocks, trees, hills, etc., which will form a scrap book collection. In these should be included reproductions of the best landscape pictures which can be found.
With aid of this data pupils should make one or more original landscape pictures.
Such attempts however elementary, as the most effective introduction to masterpieces dealing with the topic or subject under consideration.
Any mode of art results from long observation and thought, mastery by the artist of the different moods and phases of that particular subject, and the pupil's best preparation for appreciat- ing the artist production is the making and recording of a series of observations of his own rather than by analysis of the composition of such productions.
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The fullest appreciation of any work of art appears to be awakened when the observer has attempted a solution, however primitive, of the artist's problem.
In criticising results it should be borne in mind that it is impossible to measure the success of art work in the schools by the same definite standards as of science, for the arts deal with appreciations and are related to the emotional life and racial development.
It can be tested and confirmed only by the slow course of time.
Manual Training. The purpose of the work in manual training is to secure a vital and vigorous mental reaction through the child's manual activity, and through his interest in the finished product and in the constructive problem.
In grades one, two and three work in paper, thin cardboard, and cloth provides opportunity for the children's first experiences in simple making or expression in material. The tools of these grades are essentially the same for both drawing and manual training, the pencil, ruler, crayons, paste, and scissors, and with these the children quickly acquire considerable dexterity.
The study and use of the ruler is simplified by using rulers in grade one graduated to one-inch, in grade two to one-half inch and in grade three to one-quarter inch.
The processes in these grades include measuring, ruling, cutting freehand and on straight and curved lines, scoring, folding, pasting, coloring, and lettering, and are applied in the making of such things as book-marks, pen-wipers, tags, badges, flags, envelopes, baskets, woven mats, etc., valentines, simple toys, etc.
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