USA > Massachusetts > Bristol County > Fall River > Centennial history of Fall River, Mass. : comprising a record of its corporate progress from 1656 to 1876, with sketches of its manufacturing industries, local and general characteristics, valuable statistical tables, etc. > Part 11
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87
COTTON AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
temporarily successful, the American exportation constantly increasing. Dr. Livingstone, who was in his youth a weaver, in his first published record of travel, speaks of finding in the hut of a negro king a piece of Manchester cloth labelled New York Mills-so wretched an imitation of the well-known fabric it claimed to be, that he seems to wonder at the attempted deception even in the wilds of Africa.
In 1835 the exportation had attained a really respectable position, promising, if continued, to consume a considerable proportion of the entire production. Of this period Mr. Bishop remarks :
" The quantity of cotton long cloths imported this year from the United States into China was 134,000 pieces, and of cotton domestics 32,743 pieces ; while of cotton goods the whole importation into that country in British vessels was only 75,922 pieces. The importation of American piece goods was nearly double that of the previous year, amounting to 24,745 pieces. An extensive manufacturer of Glasgow, who had for several years supplied Chili with cotton domestics, spun and woven in his own works to the best advantage, had latterly been obliged to abandon the trade to American competition. At Manilla, 35,240 pieces of thirty-inch and 7000 pieces of twenty-eight-inch American gray cottons were received, and only 1832 pieces of Belfast manufacture. The ports of Rio de Janeiro, Aux Cayes, of Malta, Smyrna, and the Cape of Good Hope, were also overstocked with American unbleached cottons, to the exclusion of British goods, which they undersold."
The terribly disastrous effects of the civil war, almost sweeping American commerce from the seas, at last gave to the British manufacturer the advantage he was unable to secure in a legitimate competition. Up to the appearance of rebel privateers upon the ocean, our domestic production in nearly every foreign market was preferred to the British, and in China had well-nigh driven it from the field. Mr. Eli T. Sheppard, United States Consul at Tien-tsin, the principal port of entry for cotton fabrics, in a com- munication to the State Department, October 10, 1872, in regard to the relative position of American and British stuffs, remarks as follows :
" The importation of American cotton manufactured goods into China is worthy of our most earnest consideration. Ever since the British plenipo- tentiary, who signed the treaty at Nankin in 1842, informed his countrymen that ' he had opened up a country to their trade so vast that all the mills in Lancashire, by running night and day, could not make stocking-stuff enough for one of its provinces," the question of supplying China with manufactured cottons has been one of the most absorbing interest for the wisest statesmen and political economists of Great Britain.
" During the year 1861, before the civil war in America had seriously crippled our commerce and manufactures, 133,401 pieces of American drills and jeans were sold in Tien-tsin, netting in gold $583,223. So great, indeed, had become the demand for American cotton fabrics, that the demand far exceeded the supply.
" Against the 133,401 pieces of American goods imported at Tien-tsin in
88
FALL RIVER AND ITS INDUSTRIES.
1861, the number of pieces of English drills imported was only 3599 pieces for the same period. In other words, the trade at this port in American cottons was, in round numbers, forty times that of English manufactured articles of a like character. During the war the imports of American cottons became merely nominal, while a corresponding increase of English fabrics supplied the market. From this I infer that there is no good reason why American manufactured cotton goods should not again resume their place in the markets of China.
" Cotton manufactures form at present the largest part of the direct trade between England and China, and Ticn-tsin has already become the largest importer of these articles in the empire."
In 1859 and 1860, preceding the war, there were severally shipped from the port of New York alone to China and the East Indics 53,662 and 47,735 packages. In 1861, the effect of the war not yet being seriously felt, the amount fell off to 31,911 packages. In 1862 to 1865 the exportation was entirely cut off, and the Chinese market virtually lost to American industry. Since the close of the internecine struggle, efforts have been made to re-estab- lish the trade, the shipments from New York in 1866 being 6,972 packages ; but it is a difficult undertaking to build again both trade and commerce.
Meanwhile the competitors of the United States in China, the English and Dutch manufacturers, had enjoyed the trade without even a contest ; the former not only, in the forced absence of his old antagonist, still pursuing the dishonest practice of assuming his trade-marks, and using every means to counterfeit his production in appearance, but resorting to a fraudulent deba- sing of the fabric in both material and finish that has threatened to close the Eastern market to all European as well as American enterprise. This perni- cious policy of the Manchester cotton interest was manifested to some degree in the early period of competition, English cloth having always discovered a proportion of foreign matter in its material when tested by washing. Within the present decadc, the practice of introducing clay and other matter to increase the weight, and exaggerating the "sizing" far beyond the requisite degree needed to dress the warp properly, has, however, reached a point at which adulteration is a mild term to apply to it. The fraud had in 1873 become so flagrant as to force the British merchants in China to memorialize the Manchester Chamber of Commerce upon the subject, and the London Times to utter the protest of honest industry as follows :
" It seems a pity that the present exhibition was not made the oppor- tunity of instructing the public in that dark chapter of the cotton manufac- ture known as the ' sizing' question, concerning which a memorial went up to the Government last year from the weavers of Todmorden, and has been
89
COTTON AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
followed this year by a very clear and emphatic report from Dr. Buchanan, a Government officer commissioned to make inquiries. This matter of the 'sizing' of cotton lies in a nutshell, and we will state it shortly for the infor- mation of those who are not likely to see Dr. Buchanan's temperate but decided report. Up to twenty years ago fermented flour and tallow were used in the cotton manufacture to give tenacity to the warp and to lessen the friction in weaving. It was then found that the brown color imparted to the cloth by size made from cheap and bad flour could be corrected by china clay added to the size, and furthermore that this clay lessened the amount of tallow needed in the size. The clay came thus into use, and its use became still more general when the Russian war raised the price of tallow. Presently came the American war of secession, and the manufacturers were forced to put up with bad, short-fibred cotton, difficult to weave. It was then further found that a free use of size gave to poor sorts of cotton the needful tenacity of twist, and, weight for length being the test of good cloth, it was also evi- dent that the more the size used the greater the weight. Thus very soon a practice crept in, and has now spread largely over the cotton trade, of unwar- rantably loading cotton with quantities of size laid on to the warps to the extent of forty, sixty, and even, as the weavers assert, one hundred per cent of their original weight. This practice of deliberate adulteration has become in the cotton trade a recognized detail of manufacture ; but, however it may be viewed by those interested in the practice, it must still seem a downright dishonesty to the outer world. But the dishonesty of this practice is not the worst part of it, for the weavers suffer far more than the public, being com- pelled to inhale the dust of the clay as it rises from the warps. The Govern- ment report shows this 'heavy sizing' process has thus converted weaving from a healthy into an unhealthy occupation ; that it has made the weaving- room more dusty than the carding-room, and that it has sensibly increased among weavers in the clay-using mills lung diseases and the death-rate. It is intolerable that operatives should thus suffer because their employers choose to indulge in a questionable practice, and we trust that in the name of com- mon humanity and commercial morality some speedy stop may be put to a state of things so deeply scandalous."
In March, 1874, Mr. Sheppard, the very intelligent representative of the United States at Tien-tsin, in his official report to the State Department, referred at length to the adulteration fraud, accompanying his document with copious extracts from the North China Herald and other public expressions, indicating the disgust of all European residents in the Celestial Kingdom :
" Although the raw material used in manufacturing these fabrics, consumed by China, is chiefly produced in the United States, yet American cotton must now pass through the looms of England and Holland before it can find a market in China. The superior quality of American cotton is well known to Chinese traders. Our cotton goods, by reason of their cheapness before the war, supplied the China markets to the exclusion of all others, and created
90
FALL RIVER AND ITS INDUSTRIES.
a demand that, since our war, has steadily increased to its present imposing magnitudc. The superiority of our cotton still remains an enduring advan- tage possessed by American fabrics over all others; but this important advan- tage is now almost entirely neutralized by their high cost, as compared with those others.
"One material advantage rcaped, and still enjoyed, by England from the civil war in the United States, was the monopoly of supplying China with manufactured cotton goods. Chcap labor was unquestionably the cause of this; but after the monopoly of this trade had been fully secured to England as a consequence of our war, English manufacturers did not rest satisfied with the single advantage sustaining their monopoly-cheap labor-but resorted to counterfeiting American trade-marks that had become popular among the Chinese. The end in view was duly attained, by successfully palming off inferior English cotton fabrics upon unsuspecting native mer- chants as American manufactures, and thus our sharc in this trade was still further effectually reduced to its present insignificant proportions. As might be expected, deception was not confined to counterfeiting trade-marks and the names of American mills; a wider field was opened for its practice, and the system of over-sizing or weighting the cotton goods with worthless substances, such as clay, etc., was commenced by English manufacturers shortly after our war, and has since developed into what it is at present-a gigantic fraud.
" By this practice cotton goods, which are sold by the piece, weighing a certain number of pounds, arc so prepared by manufacturers as to reduce the proper amount of cotton from one third to one half; and this deficiency in weight is made up by worthless rubbish, which does not outlast the first wash- ing to which the cloth is subjected by the native consumer, who is deceived in buying it.
" Although our interest in the trade is now so small, it is well to mention herc that this fraudulent practice is receiving the countenance of American trade-marks, which are still extensively used by English manufacturers ; and thus the injury which American trade at first suffered through counterfeiting is now aggravated by the further dishonesty of adulteration.
" It is a question whether this fraudulent practice of over-sizing would have occasioned so much outspoken condemnation among those who are in- terested in the English trade, excepting manufacturers, had it not been that an unlooked-for result of over-sizing-namely, mildew, made its appearance to such an extent that a large proportion of English cotton goods sent to China was, and is still, found to be unmerchantable as sound goods on reaching this country. Hence, over-sizing, or weighting, is now better and less offensively known as the 'mildew question.' The English manufacturers and merchants appear to have joined issue on this question. The merchants and their agents accuse the manufacturers of dishonesty, and the latter rejoin that merchants cncourage and sustain the practice of weighting by buying goods so prepared in preference to honest goods. Meanwhile the tradc continues, and weight- ing increases, and is likely to continue so long as the Chinese consumer is the chief sufferer.
" But the iniquities of the English trade in cotton goods are working its
91
COTTON AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
disorganization, and perhaps destruction. When, after having fatally over- reached themselves, those interested in the trade are found, as they now are, each enjoining upon his neighbor one of the first principles of morality taught in the maxim that ' honesty is the best policy,' there is ground for hope that honesty will be allowed to prevail over deceit and fraud. But an honest trade implies honest competition ; and honest competition in the foreign cotton goods trade in China would result in the ascendency of American interests, and a complete reversing of the present huge and unnatural disproportion between American and English trade in China."
It is of course understood that the bulk of American exportation of cot- ton manufactured is of the " domestic" article, in which the raw material enters more largely into the product. The balance of trade in cloth is largely against the United States, England still finding with us a market for her very finest fabrics, and France and England both sending us enormous quantities of prints. In 1874, for instance, while our total of exports was but $3,091,332, our total of imports of manufactured cotton was $28,183,878. During the twelvemonth now closing the outward movement of American " domestics" has been extraordinary, the largest in many years, and hopeful augury for the future is justifiable. It is also gratifying that in our own mar- ket American prints have begun to secure the permanent approval of their merits which is really due to their quality and finish, and that consequently the year's close will show an importation largely decreased from previous annual summaries.
The following tables of exports from the ports of New York and Bos- ton, of manufactured cotton, from 1849 to 1876 inclusive, compiled by the New York Journal of Commerce, will be found both interesting and valu- able. The statement for 1876 includes only the shipments reported up to the week ending November 18th, inclusive.
DESTINATION.
I849.
1850.
I85I.
I852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Mexico.
1,920
2,463
820
1,479
8,765
1,713
2,972
Dutch West Indies.
359
289
352
32I
292
306
337
Swedish West Indies.
5I
I6
24
21
3
3
6
Danish West Indies.
II6
56
261
70
82
147
284
British West Indies
I9
I31
131
I3I
8c
903
499
Spanish West Indies
97
129
132
77
13
69
1,143
St. Domingo .. .
324
1,208
1,895
736
292
208
4II
British North America.
4
47
195
108
56
54
16
New Granada ..
163
206
153
643
396
II2
I3I
Brazil. .
1,783
1,478
3,178
3,28I
1, 194
2,682
2,764
Venezuela. .
548
990
865
865
462
988
1,094
Argentine Republic.
957
249
86
1,475
250
1,445
468
Cisplatine Republic.
92
FALL RIVER AND ITS INDUSTRIES.
DESTINATION.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
Central America ..
354
607
1,218
653
713
43
495
West Coast South America.
2,603
3,426
1,395
2,743
1,642
809
1,152
Honduras ..
859
IOI
150
246
179
276
40I
Africa ..
475
538
1,772
3,405
1,239
1,007
1,324
Australia ..
13,143
20,09I
27,902 31
38,413 25
82
550
25I
Total packages shipped from New York .. .
24,006
32, 155
40,560
54,692
34,828
24,280
27,585
Add packages shipped from Boston to
41,344
34,307
46,589
59,395
54,729
35,428
34,093
Total packages from both ports.
65,350
66,462
87, 149
113,987
89,557
59,708
61,678
DESTINATION.
1856.
1857.
1858.
I859.
1860.
I861.
I862.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Mexico.
4,897
2,084
2,446
2,475
4,873
2, 766
2,427
Dutch West Indies
I51
581
317
53I
664
569
84
Swedish West Indies.
IC
...
4
696
952
522
316
British West Indies
880
207
219
227
497
537
165
Spanish West Indies.
15I
223
358
366
193
374
I40
St. Domingo.
228
591
262
977
2, 169
1,257
484
British North America.
25
42
14
18
IO
60
23
New Granada. .
949
560
627
967
1,38I
2,005
609
Brazil ..
3,756
2,75I
4,466
3,637
8,103
5,400
953
Venezuela
335
268
523
919
1,328
1,421
I4I
590
90
328
903
I, III
430
I45
Central America.
190
IOI
200
55
53
23
I
West Coast South America ..
158
3,710
4,195
6,606
13,29I
5,299
I
Honduras.
I60
170
436
259
389
245
12
Africa.
1,874
1,414
I,200
323
1,406
876
49
Australia.
2,060
418
109
I35
323
180
3
East Indies and China
17,674
12,676
43,419
53,662
47,735 1,793
1,823
47
Total packages shipped from New York .. Add packages shipped from Boston to all ports.
34,782
26,653
59,994
74,549
86,318
55,736
5,787
37,880
26,000
29,875
31,66I
33,588
18,146
4,238
Total packages from both ports.
72,662
52,653
89,869
106,210
119,906
73,882
10,625
DESTINATION.
1863.
I864.
I865.
I866.
1867.
I868.
I869.
Mexico ..
Packages. 1,886
849
II2
282
1,090
1,837
1,496
Dutch West Indies.
9
3
....
. 42
I33
157
310
Swedish West Indies
·
.
....
...
Danish West Indies.
20
I
8
I6
33
87
I70
British West Indies.
149
24
9
58
254
399
335
Spanish West Indies.
66
86
30
22
292
140
273
St. Domingo.
63
I2
...
9
244
69
I38
British North America.
I6
. .
...
3
...
I4
30
New Granada ..
356
83
II
423
575
253
1,083
Brazil
86
4
....
261
2,343
1,716
1,494
. .
200
529
1,908
East Indies and China.
18,889
12,436
11,929
All others.
23I
I30
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages. Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
All others ..
267
203
180
1,793
47
38
Danish West Indies.
427
564
691
Argentine Republic.
Cisplatine Republic.
.
..
. .
31,9II
I87
all ports. ..
. .
93
COTTON AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
DESTINATION.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868
1869.
Venezuela
32
9
4
35
II6
303
84
Argentine Republic.
I3
2
I7
77
551
529
1,377
Cisplatine Republic
I9
8
3
59
399
I2I
247
Central America.
I
6
2
....
293
1,024
207
667
Honduras
5
4
....
5
47
I21
38
Africa
II
24
....
807
2,016
2,700
2,255
Australia.
5
7
....
6,972
4,558
15,677
10,47I
All others
30
8
....
52
197
1,715
485
Total packages shipped from New York ..
2,776
1,132
194
9,416
13,875
26,048
21,047
Add packages shipped from Boston to all ports. ..
421
264
308
6,802
9,031
11,422
7,185
Total packages from both ports.
3,197
1,396
502
16,218
22,906
37,470
28,232
DESTINATION.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
Mexico.
680
Packages. 1,948
Packages. 1,593
Packages. 1,402
1,529
1,230
1,635
Dutch West Indies.
270
339
329
330
318
I94
95
Danish West Indies.
285
I39
281
16I
I39
178
194
British West Indies.
261
241
348
323
438
329
723
Spanish West Indies.
543
731
646
610
409
328
780
St. Domingo.
1,698
829
625
1,376
1,123
2,867
1,927
British North America.
48
43
32
93
81
664
825
New Granada
1,139
1,464
785
643
1,012
1,224
4,156
Brazil .
1,712
2,43I
2,886
2,879
3,699
5,320
4,831
Venezuela
164
381
458
252
708
1,276
1,880
Argentine Republic.
617
85
472
1,194
285
1,000
523
Cisplatine Republic
256
317
255
745
671
73
505
Central America ..
54
4
44
252
148
77
310
West Coast South America.
624
387
336
972
....
990
425
Honduras
39
81
164
136
195
298
607
Africa. .
1,927
1,524
1,583
1,024
1,049
2,614
2,757
Australia.
68
East Indies and China.
3,174
5,488
1,798
2,302
6,349
10,017
13,415
All others ..
1,05I
583
510
2,382
4,704
8,886
27, 172
Total packages shipped from New York ...
14,482
17,049
13,045
17,28I
23,047
37,574
63,828
Add packages shipped from Boston to all ports .. . . ..
7,550
11, 157
4,889
7,442
13,876
16,935
24,392
Total packages from both ports.
22,032
28,206
17,934
24,723
36,923
54,509
87,220
The cotton manufacture of Europe and America at the close of 1874 is shown in the subjoined table :
No. of Spindles.
Founds per Spindle.
Total Pounds. ,259,836,000
Bales of 400 Pounds.
Average per Week.
England ..
37,515,000
32
United States. .
9,415,383
65
522,378,200
1,305,943
25, II4
Russia and Poland.
2,500,000
60
150,000,000
375,000
7,212
Sweden and Norway.
305,000
65
19,825,000
49,562
913
Germany.
4,650,000
55
255,750,000
639,375
12,296
Austria.
1,555,000
67
104,185,000
260,463
5,009
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
3
3
49
West Coast South America ..
....
...
East Indies and China.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Packages.
Swedish West Indies
.. ..
3,149,590
60,569
94
FALL, RIVER AND ITS INDUSTRIES.
No. of Spindles.
Pounds per Spindle.
Total Pounds.
Bales of 400 Pounds.
Average per Week.
Switzerland
1,850,000
25
46,250,000
115,625
2,223
Ilolland.
230,000
60
13,800,000
34,500
663
Belgium.
800,000
50
40,000,000
100,000
1,923
France.
5,000,000
42
210,000,000
525,000
10,096
Spain.
1,750,000
46
80,500,000
201,250
3,870
Italy.
800,000
56
44,800,000
II2,000
2,154
Totals
66,370,383
1,747,324,200
6,868,308
142,042
The four principal centres of the manufacture are in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The first factory was started in Fall River in 1813. At Amoskeag Falls, New Hampshire, a mill was operated in 1804, but the large enterprise of Manchester dates from 1831. The first cotton mill in Lowell, then East Chelmsford, was established in 1822, and the first in Lawrence in 1849. Fall River is at present, and promises to continue to be, the chief seat of the manufacture in the United States.
In 1837 the Secretary of State of Massachusetts was instructed by a concurrent vote of the Legislature to prepare a statistical exhibit of the sev- eral conspicuous industries of the Commonwealth. The following statement of the cotton manufacture, tabulated by counties, was embodied in his report :
COUNTIES.
No. of
No. of Mills. Spindles.
Pounds of Cotton con- sumed Y'rly.
Yards of Cloth man'fd Yearly.
Value of Cot- ton Goods
Males em-
F'mles em-
Capital in- vested in the
man'fd Y'rly. ploy'd ploy'd Cotton mnfr
Dollars.
Suffolk
.
Essex
7
13,300
804,222
2,301,520
372,972
115
402
337,500
Middlesex
34
165,868
17,696,245
52,860, 194
5,971,172
1054
6435
6,909,000
Worcester.
74
124,720
5,292,018
20,280,312
1,991,024
I384
1998
2,015, 100
Hampshire
6
8,312
563,000
1,574,000
176,060
72
233
216,000
Hampden.
20
66,552
4,727,302
15,107,583
1,504, 896
626
I886
1,698, 500
Franklin
4
5,924
I35,045
1,081,140
76, 125
48
140
90,000
Berkshire.
31
35,260
1,390,162
7,530,667
575,087
339
766
633,725
Norfolk
32
25,782
1,365,953
4,953,816
509,383
280
583
609,500
Bristol .
57
104,507
4,814,238
18,382,828
1,678,226
987
2015
1,622,778
Plymouth
I5
13,298
480,884 6,848
195,100
19,240
7
20
7,000
Dukes Cou :_ ty
Nantucket. .
Total
282
565,031
37,275,917
126,319,22I
13,056,659
4997
14,757
14,369,719
In comparison with the figures of this report of the cotton manufacture of Massachusetts in 1837, Fall River makes the following exhibit in 1876 :
No. of Mills.
No. of Spindles. 1,258,508
Pounds of Cotton Consumed Annually. 58,050,000
Yards of Cloth Manufactured.
Employés.
Capital Invested.
33
340,000,000
14,000
$30,000,000
230,616
Barnstable
2
1,508
2,052,061
182,474
85
279
The extraordinary development of Fall River has been effected by several causes. Baines attributed the origin and growth of Manchester to the fortunate location of the place in the centre of a district rich in " water-
Dollars.
95
COTTON AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
power, fuel, and iron," possessing "ready communication with the sea by means of its well-situated port, Liverpool," and early enjoying the "acquired advantage of a canal communication." These tributary circumstances are generally wanting in the case of Fall River, which possesses neither iron nor fuel in close proximity to its demands, and reaps no appreciable advantage from its water beyond its use in the engine-rooms and the bleaching pro- cesses. Yet in several respects the location of the city is favorable to the prosecution of its great industry. Its relation to the sea, more immediate than that of its great rival, is a positive aid, the depth of water at its wharves admitting the loading and discharging not only of coasting craft, but of large ships. Thus the coal absolutely necessary for the fuel of the mill engines, and the iron worked up in its machine shops and foundries, are conveyed from the mines, in most cases, entirely by water carriage, reducing the cost of freightage to the minimum figure, and giving the hive of industry on Mount Hope Bay a superiority over manufacturing towns situated inland and obtain- ing their supplies by railroad.
In the relation of Fall River to the sea exists likewise a circumstance favorably affecting the manufacture of cotton. One of the traditional claims of England to an advantage over other countries in this pursuit has been its " sea-girt" position, which assures a constant humidity, that is an essential, in a greater or less degree, in all the stages of cloth production. Of course, the atmosphere of the region in and about Fall River has far from the same degree of moisture that is permanent in England, and a still less constituent proportion than that of the Irish coast, exposed immediately to the dense fogs of the Gulf Stream, and especially created (if we may credit the supersti- tion of the Belfast people) by a beneficent Providence for the fabrication of linen ; yet, with its slight remove from the ocean, whose moist breath is soft- ened by its passage up the inland estuary, while the English air carries the extreme of humidity to the spinning and weaving processes, that of the great American manufacturing district probably enjoys the really proper mean of temperature. In this connection an extract from recent statements of the Coast Survey officials regarding the relative temperatures of New England localities is of interest : "Locally there are some important modifications of this general character, chief of which is the softening of the extremes of heat and cold on the islands and coasts of the south-east, Nantucket, Barnstable, and Bristol counties. The well-known mildness of Newport continues all along the coast, and the difference" (between it and the extreme cold of interior Massachusetts) "in winter is very marked. The Gulf Stream comes near enough to be sensibly felt, in addition to the general modifications" (of the inland rule of extreme heat or cold) " caused by the extension, as it may be called, of these districts into the sea. Though storms are very violent off
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