USA > Michigan > Washtenaw County > History of Washtenaw County, Michigan : together with sketches of its cities, villages and townships...and biographies of representative citizens : history of Michigan > Part 165
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The first minister who had charge of the Church was Rev. Mr. Boughton. He was succeeded by the following line of pastors, -- Rev. E. B. Emerson, Rev. Oliver Hill, Rev. Justin Marsh, Rev. Alanson Scofield, Rev. Seth Hardy, Rev. Henry Bates, Rev. Nor-
1441
AUGUSTA TOWNSHIP.
man Kellogg, Rev. Wm. H. Platt, Rev. E. P. Goodrich, Rev. Mills Gelston, and Rev. W. H. Blair. In addition to these Revs. Messrs. Worthington, Wead, Jewshaw, Ellis, Gelston, and Prof. Joseph Estabrook have supplied the pulpit for short intervals.
In recent years the Church has numbered above a hundred members. The existing eldership is composed of Franklin C. Crit- tenden, Nathan Reed, David Gordner, and John K. Campbell; the following are at present trustees: Newton E. Crittenden, Peter D. Rogers, W. P. Olcott, and W. M. Dansingburg.
A prosperous Sunday-school has been maintained from the first, Deacon Alva Pratt being superintendent for a long term of years, and Mr. F. C. Crittenden more recently filling that position. Of the Sunday-school teachers Mrs. Peter Dansingburg, lately deceased, held a conspicious place for about 40 years.
This Church has enjoyed a good name for musical ability and culture. Successful singing schools, musical conventions, and con- certs have been common in its history, while the choir has furnished singers for other places. These results have been due in large measure to the unflagging, perseverance of Mr. David Gordner, who has been in charge of the singing for nearly 30 years.
The First Congregational Church and Society of Augusta .- This society was organized according to statute March 9, 1854, then consisting of 13 members, as follows: David Hardy, Christopher Howard, J. Webster Childs, A. Jackson Stitt, Josiah Childs, Ste- phen D. Hardy, Peter Tyler, John W. Flower, Calvin M. Lowe, Samuel J. Viall, John Russ, jr., Spencer Russ, Osmer A. Law- rence.
At the same meeting the following persons were elected Trustees: J. Webster Childs, Christopher Howard, John W. Flower, Stephen T. Hardy, Calvin M. Lowe, Josiah Childs. These trustees were immediately instructed to raise money by subscription and other- wise for the purpose of providing a house of worship and procur- ing a site on which to erect the same. The trustees met the same day, elected its officers-C. Howard as chairman and J. Webster Childs as clerk-the last named having held the same office con- tinuously up to the present. The trustees proceeded at once and selected a site on the East Monroe road, section 22, made a contract with John W. Flower for the erection of a frame building 32x48 feet, which was finished the following season at an expense of about $1,300. The lot (one acre) on which the church was erected was presented to the society by Wm. Jarvis, of Ypsilanti. The build- ing was dedicated soon after being finished, in March, 1855. the sermon being preached by the Rev. Dr. Kitchell, of Detroit.
The First Congregational Church of Augusta was organized in connection with said society, on April 18, 1854, consisting of the following members: Josiah Childs, Alva Raymond, Joseph Talcott, J. Webster Childs, Calvin M. Lowe, Louisa Childs, Mary A. Rav- mond, Priscilla Talcott, Lucy A. H. Childs, Mary E. Lo . .. Jeanette Stitt, Hannah Viall, Eunice L. Keeler. The Church w.w .;
.
1442
HISTORY OF WASHTENAW COUNTY.
organized by a council of ministers and delegates from surround- ing Churches, Rev. L. Smith Hobart acting as moderator.
At a subsequent meeting of this Church, Josiah Childs and C. M. Lowe were chosen deacons, J. Webster Childs, clerk, which several positions they have held ever since.
The first pastor was Rev. Wm. Kent; those succeeding have been Revs. Michael Porter, Wm. Hall, Sam'l D. Breed, Wm. H .; Osborn, Nath'l D. Lamphear and Wm. H. Blair.
The Sabbath-school was organized at the same time. J. Web- ster Childs was chosen as superintendent, holding the same office to date. There has never been a vacation in this school. It now numbers about 60 members.
Adjoining the church is their cemetery; the first to be buried there was John Flower, in August, 1835. Present membership of Church is 60.
TOWNSHIP OFFICERS.
Following is a list of the supervisors, clerks, treasurers, asses- sors and justices of the peace who have served, or are now serving this township.
SUPERVISORS.
Stephen Mead
1836
Christopher Howard. .. 1857
Aaron Aber. .
1837
Aaron Childs ..
.1858
W. B. Bradford :
.1838
Stephen Mead. 1839
Prince Bennett, jr. 1840
J. Webster Childs
1864
Lee L. Forsyth ... 1842
Aaron Childs. 1865
Lee L. Forsyth .. 1845
Aaron Childs 1874
Christopher Howard. 1847
J. Webster Childs. 1852
Christopher Howard. 1853
Aaron Childs
1854-5.6
Wm. Dansingburgh.
1881
CLERKS.
Aaron Childs. 1886
Milton Pettybone 1858
David Eaton
1837
Philetus Case.
1859
Aaron Childs.
1838
Jeduthon Eaton. 1839
Thorn Dewel. 1862
Aaron Childs.
1841
Leartas Brown 1865
Milo Woodruff 1847
B. F. Whittaker 1866
Aaron Childs
1848
Thorn Dewel. 1867
Milo Woodruff.
1849
Chas. Rogers 1868-69
Prince Bennett 1850
Wm. L. Dansingburgh 1871
Aaron Childs.
1851
Thomas C. Howard. 1875
Prince Bennett
1852
Nathan Dressie 1877-78
Calvin Stone.
1856
Wm. E. Ward. 1879-80
Prince Bennett
1857
Walter L. Rogers.
1881
Christopher Howard. 1859
Aaron Childs. 1860
W. B. Bradford. 1843
J. D. Olcott. 1871
J. D. Olcott. 1875
Wm. Dansingburgh 1879
Wm. Dansingburgh .1880
Wm. G. Shipman. 1860
1443
AUGUSTA TOWNSHIP.
TREASURERS.
Miram H. Warner
1836
Lee L. Forsyth 1855
Jacob J. Hainer
1837
Thos. H. Shipman. 1856
W. H. Flower. 1838
Joseph Bennett 1857
John B. Starks.
1889
Thos. H. Shipman. 1858
David Hardy
1840
C. C. Lowe 1860
Robt. Barr. . 1841
Joel S. Smith. 1862
John B. Starks.
1842
Geo. W. Bordine. 1864
David Hardy. 1843
Peter D. Rogers. 1865
Joseph Bennett.
1845
Calvin M. Lowe. 1867
David Hardy
1846
Peter D. Rogers. 1868
Hiram Thompson 1847
Josiah Childs. 1871
Lee L. Forsyth. 1848
Thos. C. Howard. 1872
John French.
1849
A. H. Phelps. 1875
Robt. M. Stitt
1852
Wm. Webster. 1878
John B. Stark. 1853
Wm. A. Russell. 1880
Josiah Childs.
1854
Robert Young
1881
ASSESSORS.
Alonzo Markham
Aaron Childs
C. G. Wait
1836
Lee L. Forsyth
B. C. Wickham
Lee L. Forsyth
B. C. Wickham
Aaron Childs
C. G. Wait
1837
Hiram Thompson
1845
James Miller
Aaron Childs
B. C. Wickham
Hiram Thompson
1846
Chris. Howard
1838
Aaron Childs
Dan. Wiley
Hiram Thompson
1847
Chris. Howard
J. T. Griffin
John Rose 1839
John Rose
1848
Stephen Mead
Aaron Childs
Dan'l Wiley
C. H. Griffin
Joshua Fish
1840
Hiram Thompson
1849
John Rose
Chas. H. Griffin
1850
Milo Woodruff
1841
John B. Stark
Chris. Howard
Aaron Childs
1858
Ezek'l Abernathy
1842
Aaron Childs
Dan'l Wiley
Hiram Thompson
1843
1844
1444
HISTORY OF WASHTENAW COUNTY.
JUSTICES OF THE PEACE.
David Hardy 1836
Watson Barr. 1857
Robt. M. Stitt. 1836
Watson Barr. 1858
Wm. Burnett. 1836
Roswell Strong 1859
Oscar Welch ..
.836
Lee L. Forsyth. 1860
David Hardy 1837
Thorn Dewel. 1860
Lee L. Forsyth 1838
Thorn Dewel. 1861
Jeduthon Eaton 1838
Stephen Mead.
1839
Christopher Howard. 1863
S. T. Hardy.
1864
Lee L. Forsyth.
.1841
Wm. Campbell.
1864
Christopher Howa
1841
Milo Woodruff.
1842
Daniel Winer.
1843
Prince Bennett.
1843
Watson Barr
1867
Robt. M. Stitt
.1844
Josiah Childs
1867
Prince Bennett.
1844
Wm. Losie.
1868
John Rose.
1844
Lee L. Forsyth.
1845
James Rust. 1870
Milo Woodruff.
. 1846
Watson Barr.
1871
John Rose
1847
Lyman O. Rose.
1872
John W. Flowers 1848
Josiah Childs. 1873
Prince Bennett
.1849
James Rust. 1874
Thos. H. Shipman. 1850
Watson Barr
1875
John Rose. .
1851
Thos. C. Howard. 1376
John W. Flowers 1852
Josiah Childs. . 1877
Milo Woodruff. 1852
Lyman O. Rose 1877
Calvin H. Stone. 1854
John Bunton. 1878
Roswell Strong 1854
Watson Barr 1879
John Rose, jr. . 1855
Geo. Moffitt. 1880
J. Webster Childs
1856
Josiah Childs 1881
Prince Bennett
1857
BIOGRAPHIICAL.
The rest of the history of this township consists of brief personal sketches of some of the more prominent citizens.
George Bennett, one of the pioneers of Augusta tp., was born in Otsego Co., N. Y., Nov. 18. 1821. His parents, Prince and Esther Bennett, came to this county in 1831, and entered three tracts of land in secs. 2 and 3, Augusta tp. In this wild region George was reared to manhood, receiving only a limited education. July 4, 1849, he married Catherine A. Shannon, and the result of this union has been the birth of 6 children-James HI .; Ida A, wife of John Groves; Emma A., wife of Charles Moore; Ada E, wife of William Cromie, and Lillie M. Mr. Bennett's father assisted in the organization of Augusta township.
Rev. Prof. Gabriel Campbell is a grandson of Andrew Muir, sr., one of the first settlers in Augusta tp. He was born in 1838, at Dalrymple, Ayrshire, Scot- land, and is a lineal descendant of Oliver Cromwell. His father was Robert Campbell, sr., who emigrated from Scotland to America in 1842, and was one of the liberal contributors who secured the location of the State Normal School at Ypsilanti. Six of his sons graduated from this institution of learning, which was due in a great measure to the noble endeavors of their mother. Gabriel, the fourth son, received his preliminary education in the district schools, and in 1856 entered Union school, Ypsilanti, then under the efficient charge of Prof. Joseph Estabrook. He subsequently attended the Normal school, where he spent three or four years. He studi ed foreign languages in connection with the regular course, and graduated as valedictorian of the class, in 1861. While attending the Normal School, he was president of both student societies, and attracted con- siderable attention by his poetical productions. In 1861 entered the sophomore class of the University of Michigan, and the following year was chosen Captain
John French. 1864
S. T. Hardy 1865
R. H. Woodard.
1866
Watson Barr. 1862
Robt. M. Stitt 1840
Josiah Childs. 1869
1445
AUGUSTA TOWNSHIP.
of the military company, formed of both Normal and University students, and known as the "Normal Company." It became Co. E, 17th Reg. Mich. Vol. Inf. and 100 strong, went forth in the summer of 1862 to a campaign of un- blemished honor. After the retreat from Richmond, when the city of Washington was threatened, Captain Campbell and "Co. C." were stationed in command of the bridge over the Potomac leading to the Navy Yard, a task of extreme difficulty and importance, but performed with distinguished credit. At South Mountain the 17th Reg. succeeded in dislodging the enemy from their stone-wall defenses, with such eminent bravery, as to win the title "Stonewall Regiment" and receive from Gen. McClellan special mention and commendation in his report on the conduct of the war. In 1863 Capt. Campbell was compelled to relinquish his position in the army, on account of ill health, and he returned to his studies in the University. At the inauguration of Class-Day celebration in the University, Capt. Campbell was elected the first class poet. His poem was entitled "War Pictures," giving a graphic description of experiences during the war, and met with such enthusiastic reception that President Haven, in behalf of the faculty and others, requested it for publication. It was issued in a handsome pamphlet, a mark of distinguished appreciation which no other student of Michigan Uni- versity has yet attained. In 1865 he attended the Chicago Theological Seminary, and while in Chicago taught the German language to large classes, subsequently issuing " Campbell's New German Course," which was immediately introduced into the schools of Chicago, and throughout the country. It has passed through sever 1 editions, and had an increasing sale. Having completed his three years' cours in theology, and received the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, he accepted an election to the chair of mental and moral philosophy in the University of Minnesota. Soon after entering the University, and in 1868, he was ordained to the ministry in the Congregational Church. He has supplied pulpits with so great acceptance as to receive calls, on several occasions, to the pas orate of lead- ing Churches of that denomination in this country. One sermon, " The Eternity of Future Penalties," was recommended to the students of Auburn Theological Seminary, as the ablest discussion extant of that profound subject.
The years 1870 and '71, Prof. Campbell spent in travel and study abroad, pur- suing a full course in philosophy at the University of Berlin. While engaged with his studies, he was invited by Michelet to the Philosophical Society of the German capital, as a guest, and was subsequently elected a member of the Philo- sophical Society of Berlin, the most distinguished body of philosophers in Europe. He has published a series of Essays on Philosophy in England, Scotland, and Germany, which attracted such attention as to be translated into Ger- man and published in that language. During 1874 and '75, in connection with his professional labors, he was editor of the Citizen, a State educational and religious journal. Prof. Campbell's work in the University of Minnesota was one of uncommon popularity and power. Several years ago he was offered the Presidency of that institution, which, however, he declined. This unsolicited tender of the presidency of a State University is an honor as great as has hten bestowed upon any of the living Alumni of Michigan University. When, in 1880, the Professor gave up his position as Vice-President and Professor in Minnesota University, for a period of rest and preparation for a larger field of labor, the Alumni of that institution, with one accord, protested, and secured a large addi- tion to his salary in order to induce him to remain. Prof. Campbell was married in 1865, to Louise T. McMahon, second daughter of Joseph McMahon, of Man- chester, Washtenaw Co., Mich. They have been blessed with 5 children.
Robert Campbell, farmer, was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, Nov. 1, 180 2. His parents were William and Elizabeth Campbell. He was reared and educated in Scotland. His father died June 22, 1825, and his mother and brother came to America in 1841, followed in 1842, by Robert. They came immediately to Wash- tenaw Co., and purchased 160 acres of land, and afterward 80 acres more. March 1, 1825, he married Ann Muir, born in Scotland, Sept. 18, 1804. She emigrated with her parents to America in 1829 and settled in this county. Her father built the first brick chimney in Augusta township. Of their 10 children, only 6 are now living-Mary, wife of William Lambie, William, Andrew, Robert, Gabriel and John K. Mr. and Mrs. Campbell are members of the Presbyterian Church, the former being connected with that denomination for 62 years, and the latter for 60 years. In politics he is a Republican.
A portrait of Mr. Campbell appears on page 1041 of this volume.
1446
HISTORY OF WASHTENAW COUNTY.
Aaron Childs is one of the oldest and most respected citizens of Augusta tp. He was born at Henniker, Merrimack Co., 'N. H., Dec. 1, 1806, and is the son of Josiah and Abigail (Ward) Childs, natives of the same place. He was reared on a farm till he was 17 years old, when he learned to weave woolen cloths in a factory at Peters- burg. He remained there between five and six years, and then moved to Great Falls, N. H., where he was engaged in this business one year. From this latter place he went to Nashua; remained there a short time, thence to Chautauqua, N. Y., and a year after (in 1834) emigrated to Washtenaw Co., and entered 160 acres of land on sec. 15, subsequent additions making the farm now comprise 175 acres. Mr. C. assisted in the organization of Augusta tp., the first meeting being held at his residence, and he being elected clerk at the first tp., election, which office'he has satisfactorily filled for several terms. He was a member of the Board of Supervisors for 15 consecutive years, and Postmaster at Paint Creek for a considerable length of time. In 1870 he was elected a member of the State Legislature from Washtenaw Co. for one term, consisting of two sessions. Politically he is a firm believer in the principles inaug- erated by Andrew Jackson. On April 11, 1833, he was united in marriage to Hannah F. Bemis, born in Windham Co., Vt., July 19, 1814, and daughter of Jon- athan and Lovina (Greenwood) Bemis. This union has been blessed with 9 children, 7 of whom are living-Jonathan W., Clerk in the Interior Department, Washington, D. C .; Lewis E., Lovina L., wife of Robert Campbell; William K., Sergeant-at-Arms of the present Michigan House of Representatives; Eugene M., Alma C. and Ella A., wife of William Osborn, of Allegan Co., Mich. Mr. Childs has followed farming and stock-raising as an occupation since coming to this county, and is one of the most enterprising men of " Fair Washtenaw."
Hon. J. Webster Childs, the youngest child of Deacon Josiah and Abigail Childs, was born at Henniker, N. H., the birth place of his parents, June 16, 1826. His father closed a life of activity and usefulness at the age of 71 years; his mother attained to the ripe old age of 88 years. Mr. Childs early entertained a strong desire to obtain a good education, and accordingly paid his own way through school from the age of 15 years. Too close application to study impaired his health, and in 1848 he removed to Michigan, locating in Augusta tp. In 1849 he was elected School Inspector and served in that capacity over 25 years; in 1854, he joined the ranks of the Republican party, and has continued a faithful and efficient member since that period. In 1850 he was elected a member of the Board of Supervisors, which position he held seven years; was Justice of the Peace for one term; in 1858 was elected to the State Legislature, and re-elected in 1860; has since been elected three times to the State Senate, and during his last term, in 1873, was President pro tempore of that important body ; in 1868 he was appointed by the Board of Agriculture, and re-appointed by Gov. Bagley in 1874, still occupying that position ; in 1868 he was elected President of the Farmers' and Mechanics' Trade Association, of Ypsilanti, a very successful and prosperous body ; at the organization of the Eastern Michigan Agricultural and Mechanical Society, of Ypsilanti, in 1878, he was elected President, holding that position for three years; for six years was a member of the executive committee of the State Agricultural Society; in 1873 became connected with the Patrons of Hus- bandry, and for a term of years was chairman of the executive committee of the State Grange. At the age of 15 years, he united with the Congregational Church, and since 1854 has been Superintendent of the Sunday-school. Mr. Childs was married Aug. 30, 1848, to Lucy A. Hubbard, who was born at Clare- mont, N. H., Sept. 13, 1825. Mrs. Childs is a lady of rare attainments, remark- able business ability and bounteous hospitality. Mr. Childs has been strictly temperate from childhood, and has frequently lectured on the subject of temper- ance. His deep voice and profound language hold an audience spell-bound. He is a man of strict integrity, high principles and fine social character.
Dr. Robert E. Douglass, jr., was born in Albany Co., N. Y., June 25, 1848, and is a son of Prof. Robert E. Douglass, a Professor of considerable eminence in the Albany Medical College, N. Y. He practiced medicine in Albany for 45 years, and for a number of years was connected with the college. His ancestors, for six generations back, were physicians. His grandfather came from Scotland. The subject of this sketch commenced reading medicine with Prof. T. A. McGraw, M. D., of Detroit, with whom he remained three years. He then attended a course of lectures at Detroit Medical College, graduating June 8, 1869. He was a phy- sician in Bellevue hospital, New York city, one year, then went to Saline, Mich., where he practiced three years, and subsequently to Stony Creek. He holds the
1447
AUGUSTA TOWNSHIP.
position of College Physician and Surgeon in the Medical College at Buffalo, N. Y. Dr. Douglass was married Aug. 4, 1870, to Emily M. Gooding, and I child, Fred G., was born to them. Mrs. D. died Oct. 2, 1875, and Dr. Douglass married Louisa P. Gooding, May 15, 1876. She died some time ago. In politics Mr. Douglass is Democratic. He owns 40 acres of land in York and Augusta tps.
David Gardner, farmer, was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, May 6, 1827. His parents, Robert and Margaret Gardner, emigrated to America in 1831, and the same year settled in Ypsilanti, where they still reside. Mr. G. was raised on a farm, and obtained his education in the public schools. He was married Nov. 18, 1874, to Mary B. Phelps, born in Saratoga Co., N. Y., April 27, 1847. This union has been blessed with 3 children-Ella M., Mary E , and Margaret E. Mr. Gardner has devoted a considerable portion of his life to the study of vocal music, and attended the first Normal musical convention that was assembled in the United States. It convened in Dodsworth Hall, Broadway, New York city. He has been chorister of Stony Creek Baptist Church for 28 years, is also a mem- ber of the Church. He worked at the carpenter's trade for 10 years of his life, but lately has directed his attention to agricultural pursuits, and now owns a fine farm of 191 acres on sec. 5, on which, in 1875, he erected a large and hand- some residence, costing him over $5,000. In politics he is a "black Republican."
Mr. Gardner's portrait is given in this volume, on page 1265.
Jesse Hewens (deceased) was born in Gloucester, England, October, 1804. He was a shoemaker by trade, and in 1835 emigrated to America, and the same year bought land of Government in Augusta tp. He worked at his trade for several years, one season being spent at Detroit, and two seasons at Ypsilanti. During the summer months he followed farming. May 1, 1840, he married Jeanette Campbell, and 4 children were born to them, 3 of whom are living -- William, James, and Jesse ; the latter married Betsey Albin, who was born in England, Dec. 10, 1863. They have 1 child-John E. John Hewens (deceased), the eldest child, was a soldier in Co. K, 24th Reg. Mich. Vol. Inf., and died of the measles, while in training camp at Springfield, Ill. He was only 18 years old at the time of his death. Mr. Hewens died Nov. 22, 1876, aged 72 years, and his wife followed him Oct. 18, 1880.
Samuel Mason, one of the pioneers of Augusta tp., was born in Yorkshire, Eng- land, June 3, 1800, and was a son of Thomas and Hannah Mason. Samuel passed his early life on a farm, and cultivated a taste for horticulture, which proved of great value to him in after years. At the age of 19 he commenced the life of a gardener, and continued it nine years. Nov. 23, 1823, he married Ann Barton, born in Yorkshire, England, July 29, 1802, and daughter of Richard and Hannah Barton. Eight children were born to them. Six survive, namely: James, a lumber merchant of Toledo, Ohio; Hannah, wife of Henry Flowers; Richard, Henry, the two latter residents of Wyandotte, Mich .; George, and Eliza J., wife of Melvin Osborn. John (deceased) was a soldier in Co. E, 17th Reg. Mich. Vol. Inf., and died in August, 1871, from disease contracted in the service. Mr. Mason came to America in 1831, and to Washtenaw county about seven years later. While a resident of Detroit, he was employed as gardener to the lamented Gov. Cass. He bought 80 acres of ground on sec. 26. Augusta tp., and subsequent additions have increased it to 160 acres of well-improved land. Mr. and Mrs. Mason have survived the hardships incident to pioneer life, and at present reside in one of the most prosperous counties in the " Wolverine State." Mr. Mason is a Democrat.
Hiram McCarty, an old pioneer of this county, was born near Saratoga Springs, N. Y., Oct, 16, 1802, son of William and Zilpha McCarty, natives of the same place. When Hiram was small his parents removed to the vicinity of Toronto, Canada West, where he was reared till of age. His education was obtained in the common school of Canada. In 1838 he removed to this county, and purchased 160 acres of land in Augusta tp., which he still occupies. This land was covered with timber, and a thick growth of under-brush, but Mr. M. went resolutely to work and cleared it all off, with the exception of 30 acres. He was married Jan. 15, 1828, to Sarah Hall, who has been the mother of 10 children, 7 of whom are living -Margaret, wife of Nelson Burkee; Hiram, Wellington, Eliza J., Sarah, Sabina, wife of Monmouth Miller, and Levi. William, Joseph, and Perry are deceased. Mrs. McCarty departed this life July 3, 1860. Oct. 16, 1867, he was married to Mrs. Sarah Ensley, widow of William Ensley, deceased, and born in England, May 27, 1808. She is the daughter of Francis and Sarah Prince, natives of the same coun-
1448
HISTORY OF WASHTENAW COUNTY.
try. Mr. McCarty's father was Captain of militia in the war of 1812, and born at the time his father was fighting in the battle of Ticonderoga, in the Revolutionary war. Mr. C. is the possessor of a quarter sec. of well-improved land on sec. 9. He is a Republican.
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