History of Cayuga County, New York : with illustrations and biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers, Part 11

Author: Storke, Elliot G., 1811-1879. cn
Publication date: 1879
Publisher: Syracuse, N.Y. : D. Mason
Number of Pages: 762

USA > New York > Cayuga County > History of Cayuga County, New York : with illustrations and biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers > Part 11

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EARLY DISADVANTAGES. - The children of the first settlers of this County opened their eyes upon rude surroundings. Those settlers lived in log houses and, generally, were descendants of pioneers in other places, who for a generation or more had combated similar difficulties. Their own education was limited. They themselves felt the need of more thorough instruction, and were anxious to give it to their children. But how could this be done ? Where were the books, or the teachers ? Suitable books, for the instruc- tion of children and youth had not been intro- duced and competent teachers were not in the County. But schools they must, and schools they did, maintain, for longer or shorter periods each year.

A brief glance at the early school buildings, school books, the teachers at their daily work, and their method of discipline and instruction, will show the early condition of our schools.

EARLY SCHOOL BUILDINGS.

OUR EARLY SCHOOL BUILDINGS, like the homes of the children, were generally of logs. The win- dows were small and far between, the otherwise deficient light being supplied by the capacious chimneys, and. by crevices in the walls and ceil- ings. This is no fancy picture ; nor need we go any further back in our history than 1844 to find full counterparts of just such school buildings, still in use in this County. They were fully described in the reports of the supervisory offi- cers of that day. In such buildings our ancestors in this County received their first lessons ; among them was one who became president of the United States. *

On dark days the pupils would be arranged before, and around the base of, the large chimney, utilizing the light which poured down its capa- cious throat, and without which, study would have been impossible. The floor and ceiling were of loose, rough boards, through the joints of which the wind would freely circulate, affording an abundance of fresh air. The seats were often formed of riven portions of forest trees, or, where saw mills existed, of planks or slabs, supported at either end by roughly formed and acute angled legs, and without backs. Those legs would often seek in vain for a secure rest upon the uneven floor, but without doing so. From such seats, sufficiently high for adults, dangled for six tedious hours daily, the uneasy limbs of children from four to six years of age, with no support for either the legs, arms or backs. Here they must cling to the plank, or slab, and keep quiet, under the pen- alty of a blow from the whip, or ferrule, of the master, or mistress, of ceremonies. When weary, and they would soon become so, sleep would over- take, not only their limbs, in which the circulation was impeded by the sharp-angled seats, but also their entire bodies, and a careless rock of the un- easy seat would precipitate the sleepers to the floor. But the broad open fire-places of those primitive school rooms were objects of the highest interest. It was not alone the light which they supplied, grateful and necessary as that often was; they were miniature bon-fires, on which the otherwise underlighted eyes of the pupils rested with pleasure. They would gorge, at once, and without crowding, a full quarter of a cord of wood, and, when in full blast, glowed like the log heaps of the settlers' fallow ground.

Around the blazing pile, the pupils on their entrance would range themselves, and by re- peated turnings, would at length so saturate with warmth their thick, home-made clothing as, for a short time, to be comfortable upon their seats, but for a short time only ; for " may I go to the fire ?" was, on cold days, the constant cry of the pupils. In summer those open fire-places were beautifully adorned by the skill and taste of the sylvan mistress, with various green branches from the near forest, and with such wild flowers as the season afforded. Carving was one of the arts into which the school boys of that day were thoroughly indoctrinated, and the use of the pocket knife was well understood by them ; for

"The Yankee boy before he's sent to school Well knows the uses of that magic tool, The pocket knife,"

and the benches and forms of all the early school rooms were honey-combed by his industry. Not having congenial employment for his head, he sought and found it for his hands. Such were the general condition of the school houses of the County, for a full generation after its first settlement, and very many of the same sort existed as late as 1840.

THE SCHOOL BOOKS .- It should be remem- bered that at the time, and for many years after the first settlement of the County, books of any kind were a luxury rarely seen in the homes of of the people, excepting the family Bible and hymn book, and the annual calendar, or almanac. School books were then very few, and confined to the three subjects, of reading, spelling and arithmetic ; the latter for the boys in all cases, but not always for the girls. The girls, it was thought, were sufficiently educated if they were taught to read and write. Their fathers, brothers, or husbands could do the " reckoning " for them. The first books were of English pro- duction. Dilworth's spelling book and arithmetic had been generally used in New England, and many of them found their way into the early schools of this County, having descended to the children from the parents, who had used them. Webster's Spelling Book, published in 1783, was the first American school book printed in this country, and it soon found its way into our schools to the exclusion of nearly every other spelling book, and became the constant companion of all

* Millard Fillmore.

TEACHERS AND TEACHING.

the pupils, from their entrance to their exit, and they were so long and so thoroughly drilled upon it that some pupils would recite half the words contained in it.

The New Testament was a common reading book in the earlier periods into which the pupil graduated directly from the spelling book. There were then no " grades " in the schools, or any first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth readers, as at the present day. Usually one reading book sufficed ; but pupils would read in whatever book the parents might send, no matter what its title or subject. It might be Robinson Crusoe, or Pilgrims Progress ; and it was all the same, if there was but one book of the kind in the school. Webster's Spelling Book, however, soon became nearly universal. Murray's Eng- lish Reader and the Columbian Orator followed, and were fixtures in the schools for a full quarter of a century.

These books comprised the finest classical productions of the men of the age ; but were utterly unsuited for the children into whose hands they were placed, and who mumbled and stumbled through their classic paragraphs, with as little comprehension of them, as though they had been written in a dead language. But it should be remembered that comprehension of a lesson, at that time, was not considered impor- tant ; that was not the object. The pupils were then taught simply to read, not to comprehend. They were too young to understand the lesson, but would do so when they were older. This false and pernicious error ran through every study. Lessons were put into the hands of a child of eight years of age, which developed minds only could comprehend.

TEACHERS AND TEACHING .- It will be con- ceded that the teachers of that day, as a class, were not competent to their work, nor their in- struction guided by any intelligent rules. They had been very imperfectly educated, and could not teach others what they did not know them- selves. The very perfect text-books of to-day supply largely the deficiencies of teachers ; but then both teachers and text-books were deficient, and the result was what we have described. But all the schools and teachers of the first genera- tion were not equally inefficient. There were in the hamlets and villages a few well educated teachers, who were good instructors ; and fine

scholars have graduated from even our early backwoods schools ; geniuses, whom no obstacles could repress, and whose peculiar mental vigor led them on to conquer every obstacle in their paths.

The early school discipline was but a counter- part of the prevailing errors of the time. It was mainly physical. The whip and the ferrule were as constant companions to the teacher as the book, or the pen. The book in his hand, the whip or ferrule under his arm, and the pen over his ear, all were equally intended for use. The pupils were urged to be orderly and dili- gent by pungent and often painful persuasion. A goodly store of well seasoned switches was al- ways ready for extra occasions, when, as often happened, wholesale floggings were to be in- flicted. The whip in the hand of the teacher fell frequently upon the mischievous or the idle, and generally without warning or explanation. This impromptu discipline and the thorough preparation of the teachers for offense or de- fense, created in many schools a state of merely suspended warfare; the relations between the teacher and the pupils being essentially bellig- erent, and liable at any time to break out into open warfare.

In the teacher, therefore, strong physical pro- portions and firm courage were very necessary to success. On the entrance of a new teacher, he would be as carefully scanned as competitors in the prize ring, not to estimate his mind, manners, or morals, but the power of his muscles, and the probable chances of success if a conflict should arise.

With young pupils the whip and the ferrule were supplemented by many ingenious yet cruel devices, a gag in the mouth, a most barbarous punishment, standing on one foot, holding an object in the extended or uplifted hand, resting one hand and one foot upon the floor, holding a heavy weight in both hands, the body inclined forward. These and many other cruel tortures which the law forbids to be inflicted upon the felons in our prisons, were regularly used for more than a generation in Cayuga County, to in- cite in children the love of order, of books and of schools. Is their general failure a wonder ?

Incentives to study, as we have just shown, were mainly coercive, but emulation and rewards were also employed ; emulation mainly confined

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE.

to the spelling exercises, and rewards to the pri- maries, place-taking in spelling, and simple gifts to the small children. The post of honor, the head of the spelling class, was eagerly sought for, and, in the absence of other proper incentives, doubtless benefited the brighter pupils, who usually would carry off the palm ; but the less gifted were depressed by thus constantly pub- lishing their inferiority in the little community in which they daily moved.

Emulation was also employed in an interesting and exciting form in the process termed " spell- ing down," an exercise still continued ; but the greatest interest centered in the spelling schools of the time, which for the lads and lasses, had connected with them more pleasant and endear- ing associations than any or all of the other school exercises.

Of all the studies pursued in our early schools, reading was the most imperfectly taught. The unnatural, listless, drawling monotone in prose, or the sing-song in poetry, was nearly universal. It was the result of a habit formed in childhood, continued and confirmed in youth, and im- movably fixed in manhood. So general was this habit of expressionless reading that a good reader was seldom heard. The schools tended only to form and fix the habit, and books and newspapers were so rare that home reading. except of the Bible, was little practiced, and the idea that the Bible must be read in a peculiarly solemn tone did not help to form good readers. Among the masses of the people of this County for about a quarter of a century, good reading had nearly become one of the "lost arts." It was, at least, but im- perfectly preserved, amid the rigid demands and privations of forest life.

Arithmetic was better taught. Its utility was apparent to all, and every boy was initiated into its mysteries, or rather its mummeries, for its mysteries were seldom revealed. Its operations were largely mechanical, yet so long and con- tinuous was the drill that most of the boys could "do the sums" as far as the "rule of three," be-

fore they left school. Each pupil was taught singly without classes or blackboards. Indeed, in 1842, there were but two blackboards in the entire County. It was a slow and laborious op- eration for the teacher to " work out " the various " sums " for the pupils on their slates as models for them to imitate, for the progress was chiefly

one of imitation, the pupils, by long practice learning to follow their teacher's model or method of solving the questions under the different "rules." " Please show me how to do this sum ?" was a question constantly repeated in all the early schools.

It would be interesting to compare the copy- books and the facilities for acquiring the art of writing, existing in our schools fifty to seventy- five years ago, with those of to-day. The pupils came with home-made copy-books of coarse, un- ruled paper, varying in quantity from one to a half dozen sheets, home-made inks compounded of domestic dyes, a flat lead pencil formed of hammered lead, a goose quill and a ruler. Ready- made writing books, ruled paper and steel pens were yet in the future. Pens were " made" and copies " set " by the teacher. " Please make" or " Please mend my pen," were regular appeals to the teacher. In cold weather, the fire-place would, each morning, be surrounded by ink- stands to thaw their frozen contents. The teach- ers generally were clumsy penmen, and being changed every few months, there were very few decent chirographers among the pupils.

This rude condition of our popular schools was gradually changed. The rapid increase of our population, averaging for the first thirty years more than twelve hundred per year, led to a cor- responding improvement in the means and con- dition of the people. Hamlets and villages arose and educated men in large numbers became resi- dents of them. The professions and most of the employments soon had in them men of liberal attainments, whose children were to be educated. Nearly all of this class were the organizers and patrons of private schools, the popular schools not being at that time, in their judgment, or in fact, worthy of intelligent patronage. Hence, though there were a few educated and competent teachers thus employed in the instruction of the children of the more intelligent, the public schools were still neglected, and in them very little improvement was made.

From 1789 to 1838, the State from time to time, from the sale of lotteries, appropriations of public lands, and from revenues derived from United States deposit funds and other sources, had been accumulating a fund, the income of which was annually appropriated to the support of common schools. This fund in 1838 amount-

SCHOOL LEGISLATION.

ed to over three-fourths of a million of dollars. From the administration of Governor George Clinton, every Governor and Secretary of State has advocated and recommended a liberal en- couragement of common schools, and laws for their internal administration have been enacted, and from time to time changed. The first gener- al law was passed in 1795. It appropriated $50,000 annually, for five years, to the support of the common schools. Each county was required to raise by tax an amount equal to one-half its distributive share of this sum, and town com- missioners and district trustees were authorized to be appointed. On this subject, at that time, Governor Clinton said :

" While it is evident that the general estab- lishment and liberal endowment of academies are highly to be commended and are attended with the most beneficial results ; yet it cannot be de- nied that they are principally confined to the children of the opulent, and that a great portion of the community are excluded from their need- ed advantages. The establishment of common schools throughout the State is happily calculated to remedy this inconvenience, and will, therefore, engage your early and decided consideration."

The same liberal support was given to the common schools by Governors Jay, in 1800, Clin- ton, in 1802, Lewis, in 1805, and Tompkins, dur- ing his administration, and defects in the laws were sought to be corrected. In 1811 a com- mission was appointed by the Legislature, con- sisting of five persons, to revise the system of common school organization, whose report in 1812 was adopted, and Gideon Hawley was ap- pointed State Superintendent, which position he held until 1821, when the Secretary of State was made ex-officio Superintendent of Schools.

But the practical operation of the school sys- tem of the State was far from satisfactory. At- tempts were regularly made to correct defects. Eight academies, one in each Senatorial district, were designated in 1835, for the instruction of common-school teachers. District school libra- ries were established in 1838; and in 1841 the supervision of the schools was confided to Deputy or County Superintendents. In 1843 Town In- spectors and Commissioners were superceded by one Superintendent of Schools in each town. A State Normal School was organ- ized in 1844, especially intended for the in- struction of common school teachers, and opened on the 18th of December following.

The office of County Superintendent was con- tinued for six years, and had been the means of effecting important improvements in the schools, but the appointments, made by the County Su- pervisors, were, in some instances, injudicious, and the office was brought into disrepute and abolished in 1847, against the earnest protest of the best friends of education in the State. It was, however, practically restored in 1856, by the institution of the office of School Commissioner, which is still continued. Free schools throughout the State were established in 1849, the act being submitted to the people, by three-fourths of whom it was approved. Its practical operation was found to impose unequal taxation and a re-sub- mission of the law to a popular vote was de- manded. In 1850 the vote was taken, and the law again sustained, but by a lessened majority.

The free school law was abolished the year following, and the provision was made to raise $800,000 annually, by State tax, which was af- terwards changed to a three-fourths mill tax, by which the country schools were mainly relieved from rate bills. The establishment of free, union, or high schools was permitted by law in 1853. There has, therefore, been no lack of interest in education on the part of the State, and it has, from first to last, liberally contributed to its support and advancement. But the great difficulty has been amongst the people them- selves, as to the right use and application of the means provided, and a lack of intelligent com- prehension of the best method of giving to their schools the highest efficiency.

Between 1830 and 1850 is the period during which thorough improvements in our schools had their origin ; and the first important impulse was given by the introduction of improved school books, prepared by intelligent educators. In that period, also, the range of studies was greatly enlarged. Grammar, geography, natural philosophy and algebra found their way into the common schools, and chemistry, botany, astron- omy, geology and mental and moral philosophy, into our public high schools.

Much of the credit of this reform must be con- ceded to that now troublesome and importunate class, the authors and publishers of school books. There was a great need of better books, and authors and publishers came in swarms to supply it. Each author, or publisher, acting as critic

IMPROVED METHODS OF EDUCATION.

of the defects of rival books, and as instructor in the great method of teaching the subjects embraced in his own. This gradually led to a more careful consideration of the whole subject and was the first step in educational reform.

There was a coincident and great change in the educational literature for children and youth, of which the " Peter Parley " and the " Abott's Books." were examples, and of which millions of copies were sold, and whose influence upon the young was most wholesome. S. G. Goodrich, the author of the Peter Parley books, who wrote more books for youth than any other American, and who has been called the " Napoleon of the Pen," gave, in four lines, the " Golden Rules" which should be the guide of the educator, whether parent or professional teacher.

" Begin with simple lessons-things On which the children love to look ; Flowers, insects, pebbles, birds on wings, These are God's spelling book."

Between 1830 and 1850 was also the period during which education and the best means for its improvement formed the great subject of discussion, in which were engaged the ripest scholars and soundest educators of the age : Em- erson, Mann, Woodbridge, Alonzo Potter, David P. Paige, and scores of others. They prepared masterly papers or books, which were widely dis- seminated over the country, enlightening the public and leading to the institution of the county supervision of our schools in 1841, the estab- lishment of teachers' institutes in 1842, of the State Normal School for the special training of teachers, in 1844, followed by seven other simi- lar institutions in different parts of the State, and of provisions for the free education of all the youth of the State a few years later.

The county supervision of the public schools, established in 1841, was the most efficient agency that had theretofore been employed to reform their great deficiencies. The officers entrusted with this duty, became among the people educa- tional missionaries, carrying into all the schools the usages and practices of the best educators and acting as the instructors of both teachers and patrons. The people of the several districts were frequently convened, and the wants and de- ficiencies of the schools and the means of sup- plying them carefully pointed out. The teachers themselves were separately convened in county meetings and practical teaching discussed. Regu-

lar teachers' associations arose from these meet- ings and have been continued to the present time, forming important links in the chain of reform ; but the limited time to which these meetings were restricted, prevented a satisfactory consideration of the various topics presented.

Teachers' institutes were a direct and necessary outgrowth of these associations in which the teachers of a county were held in an annual ses- sion of about two weeks and carefully instructed by competent educators in the science and art of teaching. The first teachers' institute in the State was held in 1842. They were held in Cayuga County among the earliest, and at the first three sessions there was an attendance of over five hundred teachers. These institutes so enlisted the public favor that they have been regularly maintained for the last thirty-five years, have been recognized, and in part sustained by the State, and organized in most of the counties. They were held in 1877 in fifty-five counties, at which there was an attendance of 11,892 teach- ers.

In 1845, coincident with or very soon after the formation of teachers' associations and institutes in the counties, the State teachers' association was formed and has since been maintained.

The County and State association and teach- ers' institutes were accompanied by the organiza- tion in 1843, of a State Normal School, located at Albany, and specially designed for the training of public school teachers. It was so satisfactory in its results that it was afterwards followed by seven similar institutions in other parts of the State, and they are to-day in active and efficient operation. The free school system of the State and of its cities and villages, was also the direct outgrowth of the educational activity during the decade from 1840 to 1850.

The results of all these agencies have been a marvelous change in many of the common and high schools of the State, and Cayuga County has not fallen behind in the march of improve- ment. Her public schools, especially in the city of Auburn and in the principal villages, that in 1840 were " a by-word and reproach," not patron- ized by the wealthy and the intelligent, nor worthy of it, are now the recipients of the patronage of all classes, and, for the right instruction of chil- dren and youth, are, beyond question, the best schools in the County. In the city of Auburn,

ART AND PROFESSIONAL ARTISTS.

the change has been the most marked and de- cided, and is mainly due to the intelligent and persistent efforts of a few devoted men, amongst whom C. P. Williams, long a teacher in the city and officially connected with the administra- tion of the schools holds a conspicuous place. B. B. Snow, under whose quiet but thorough course as superintendent for many years, the schools have constantly improved, deserves special men- tion for the important aid which he has rendered and is rendering in school reform.

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History of Cayuga County, New York : with illustrations and biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers, Part 11

Author: Storke, Elliot G., 1811-1879. cn Publication date: 1879 Publisher: Syracuse, N.Y. : D. Mason Number of Pages: 762

Author: Storke, Elliot G., 1811-1879. cn
Publication date: 1879
Publisher: Syracuse, N.Y. : D. Mason
Number of Pages: 762