USA > New York > Saratoga County > History of Saratoga County, New York, with illustrations and biographical sketches of some of its prominent men and pioneers. > Part 3
Note: The text from this book was generated using artificial intelligence so there may be some errors. The full pages can be found on Archive.org (link on the Part 1 page).
Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4 | Part 5 | Part 6 | Part 7 | Part 8 | Part 9 | Part 10 | Part 11 | Part 12 | Part 13 | Part 14 | Part 15 | Part 16 | Part 17 | Part 18 | Part 19 | Part 20 | Part 21 | Part 22 | Part 23 | Part 24 | Part 25 | Part 26 | Part 27 | Part 28 | Part 29 | Part 30 | Part 31 | Part 32 | Part 33 | Part 34 | Part 35 | Part 36 | Part 37 | Part 38 | Part 39 | Part 40 | Part 41 | Part 42 | Part 43 | Part 44 | Part 45 | Part 46 | Part 47 | Part 48 | Part 49 | Part 50 | Part 51 | Part 52 | Part 53 | Part 54 | Part 55 | Part 56 | Part 57 | Part 58 | Part 59 | Part 60 | Part 61 | Part 62 | Part 63 | Part 64 | Part 65 | Part 66 | Part 67 | Part 68 | Part 69 | Part 70 | Part 71 | Part 72 | Part 73 | Part 74 | Part 75 | Part 76 | Part 77 | Part 78 | Part 79 | Part 80 | Part 81 | Part 82 | Part 83 | Part 84 | Part 85 | Part 86 | Part 87 | Part 88 | Part 89 | Part 90 | Part 91 | Part 92 | Part 93 | Part 94 | Part 95 | Part 96 | Part 97 | Part 98 | Part 99 | Part 100 | Part 101 | Part 102 | Part 103 | Part 104 | Part 105 | Part 106 | Part 107 | Part 108 | Part 109 | Part 110 | Part 111 | Part 112 | Part 113 | Part 114 | Part 115 | Part 116 | Part 117 | Part 118 | Part 119 | Part 120 | Part 121 | Part 122 | Part 123 | Part 124 | Part 125 | Part 126 | Part 127 | Part 128 | Part 129
The other smaller lakes in the county, like the smaller streams, will be described in the history of the several towns in which they lie.
Having thus given some account of the most striking topographical features of the county, in the following chapter will be found a brief statement of the geological outlines of its rocky groundwork and surface soils.
CHAPTER IV.
GEOLOGICAL OUTLINES.
I .- ERAS-AGES-PERIODS.
THE rocky groundwork which underlies the county of Saratoga presents, to the student of geology, many features of surpassing interest. Yet all that properly seems to come within the scope of this work is a mere outline of the subject, so far as it necessarily bears upon the economic interests and historical associations of the county and its surroundings. And this outline will be confined princi- pally to the more striking geologic features of the county; in a word, to the departments of physiographic and histori-
cal geology, leaving to the interested student the no less in- viting fields of lithological and dynamical geology, of which the county is so rich in natural illustrations, to be studied in the field itself here spread out before him, or in the numerous special works devoted to the science.
The science of geology unfolds to us to some extent the mysteries of the world's creation. The earth itself, like the plant or animal it sustains on its surface, is a thing of growth, of development. The different periods of this growth and development are more or less distinctly marked upon the rocky structure of the earth by the various fossil forms of animal and vegetable life found therein, and these successive periods so marked are termed geologic epochs, times, or ages.
The geologie epochs or ages of the world are distinguished by the progressive development of the various forms of animal and vegetable life, from the lowest to the highest forms of existence.
The extremely interesting geologie features of Saratoga County can be best explained by referring somewhat in de- tail to the geologic ages of the world based upon the pro- gress of life and living things, and the different periods of geologie time marked by these successive ages.
The sulxlivisions of geological time are eras, ages, and periods.
The eras are five in number, marked in all by seven ages of development in organic life.
I .- ARCHLEAN OR EOZOIC ERA .-- ( The Dawn of Animal Life.) Ist. Laurentian Age.
II .- PALEOZOIC ERA .- ( Old Life.) 2d. The Silurian, or Age of Mollusks.
3d. The Devonian, or Age of Fishes. 4th. The Carboniferons, or Age of Coal-Plants.
III .- MESOZOIC ERA .- ( Middle Life.) 5th. The Reptilian Age.
IV .- CENOZOIC ERA .- ( Recent Life.) Gth. The Age of Mammals.
V .- PSYCHozoIC ERA .- ( Era of Mind.) 7th. The Age of Man.
These five several eras of geological time and the seven successive ages of life development on the earth are well represented in the accompanying table ( page 16), which is copied in great part from the one prepared by Prof. James D. Dana for his " Manual of Geology." Beginning with the oldest, at the bottom of the table, the Laurentian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous periods are represented by series of American rocks in the natural order of their for- mations. The rest of the series is taken from European geology, in which the later ages of the earth's rocky growth are far more distinctly represented than in America.
As no deposited rocky beds are to be found within the borders of Saratoga County higher in the series than the Hudson river group of slates and shales, the fossils of which rise in fact no higher in the scale of being than the Lower Silurian age, it will be seen that, geologically speaking, Saratoga County is very old.
II .- THE LAURENTIAN AGE.
The great Canadian Laurentian mountain system, which is so finely developed in northern New York and stretches its rugged, towering masses far down into Saratoga County,
16
HISTORY OF SARATOGA COUNTY, NEW YORK.
TABLE OF GEOLOGIC TIME.
Periods.
Epochs and Sub-Epochs.
PSYCHOZOIC ERA.
AGE OF
MAN.
Mind.
Post-tertiary.
Pleistocene, or Post-tertiary.
CENOZOIC ERA.
MAMMALIAN AGE.
Tertiary.
Eocene.
Cretaceous.
Upper Cretaceous.
Upper or White Chalk. (Lower or Gray.
MESOZOIC ERA,
REPTILIAN AGE.
Jurassic.
Oolitic Epoch.
Lower Oolite.
Inferior Oolite. .
Upper Lias.
Marlstone.
Lower Lias.
Kenper.
Muschelkalk.
Bunter-sandstein.
Permian.
CARBONIFERGUS AGE,
Carboniferous.
14b Lower Coal Measures.
14a Millstone Grit.
Sub-carboniferous.
13b Upper.
13a Lower.
Catskill.
12
11b Chemung.
Chemung.
llu Portage.
10c Genesee.
Hamilton.
10b Hamilton.
10a Marcellus.
Upper Helderberg.
'9b Schoharie.
9a Cauda-Galli.
Oriskany.
8 | Oriskany.
Lower Helderberg.
7 Lower Helderberg.
Upper Silurian.
Salina.
6 Saliferous.
5d Niagara.
Niagara.
5h Medina.
5a Oneida.
Line of latest rock formations in Saratoga County.
Hudson.
4a Utica.
( Trenton.
3b Black River.
Trentoo.
( Birdseye.
3a Chazy,
2b Calciferons.
Potsdamı.
2a Potsdam.
EOZOIC ERA. | Dawn of Life. | Laurentian.
1 Laurentian.
PALÆOZOIC ERA.
DEVONIAN AGE, OR AGE OF FISHES.
1 Oxford Clay.
[ Stonesfield.
Liassic Epoch.
Middle Cretaceous ( Upper Green-Sand). Lower Cretaceous (Lower Green-Sand).
Wealden E.
Wealden.
Upper Oulite. [ Purbeck, Portland, and Kimmeridge Clay.
Middle Oolite. ( Coral-rag.
Triassic.
15 Permian.
14c Upper Coal Measures.
9c Upper Helderberg.
SILURIAN AGE, OR AGE OF MOLLUSKS.
5c Clinton.
4b Hudson River.
Lower Silurian.
Pliocene.
Miocene.
17
HISTORY OF SARATOGA COUNTY, NEW YORK.
begins on the coast of Labrador near the mouth of the river St. Lawrence and extends up along the northern bank of the river to a point near the city of Quebec. From this point it recedes from the river inland for some thirty miles or more until it crosses the Ottawa river above Montreal. After crossing the Ottawa the chain again bends southerly towards the St. Lawrence, and a spur of it crosses the great river at Thousand Islands into northern New York, and, spreading out eastward and southerly, forms the rugged mountain system of the Adirondack wilderness.
The Laurentian system of rocks constitutes the oldest known strata of the earth's crust. In the Laurentian rock- beds are to be found the remains of life-forms of life's early dawn.
Until within a few years the Laurentian system has been termed by geologists Azoic, or without life, but the more reeent discoveries show evidences of both animal and vege- table life in great abundanee, but life in its earliest forms. It is the prehistoric, mythical era of geologie time now called the Archaan, or Eozoic, time,-the time of dawning life.
The Laurentian rocks are mostly of the metamorphic series, related to granite, gneiss, syenite, and the like. But they embrace only the most ancient of these rocks, for the New England granites and schists belong to later ages.
Besides trne granite and gneiss, there are diorite, a rock formed of feldspar and hornblende without quartz, and also very extensive ranges of coarse granite-like rocks of grayish and reddish-brown colors, composed mainly of erystallized Labradorite, or a related feldspar, or this feldspar joined with the brownish-black and bronzy, foliated hyperstene. These rocks also contain green, brown, and reddish-colored porphyry, serpentine, limestone (statuary marble), granular quartz, magnetie and specular iron ore, a hard conglomerate ophiolites, or verd-antique marbles of different varieties, garnets, tourmaline, scapolite, Wollastonite, sphone, rutile, graphite, phlogopite, apatite, chondrodite, spinel, zircon, and corundum.
III .- POTSDAM AND CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONES.
The rocks next above the Laurentian series belong to the Lower Silurian age and to the Potsdam or Primordial period. First in order comes the Potsdam sandstone, and next above and resting on that is the calciferous sandrock. The calciferous sandrock is the grayish rock which underlies all the north western part of the village of Saratoga Springs, and may often be seen cropping out near North Broadway in all the upper part of the village.
A narrow belt of calciferous sandstone, covering Potsdam sandstone, extends across the county, lapping over on to the lower edge of the old Laurentian rocks.
In this Primordial period the remains of life appear in its lower marine, but not fresh-water forms, in great abun- dance.
These rocks were deposited in the shallow beds of the Primordial ocean, when its waves beat along the old Lauren- tian shore.
Algic, or sea-weeds, are the only plant forms found in the Potsdam sandstone and Caleiferous sandstone epochs.
The animal remains of this period are all marine. 3
1. Among Protozoans are found sponges and rhizopods.
2. Among Radiates are found erinoids, graptolites, and, it may be, coral-making polyps.
3. Among Mollusks are found bryozoans, brachiopods, conchifers, pteroyous, gasterpods, and cephalodes, thus representing all the grand divisions of mollusk life.
4. Among Articulates may be found marine worms, crustaceans of the trilobite tribes, and ostracoids.
The most abundant fossils found in the Potsdam beds are the brachiopod, genus lingula, and trilobites. The trilobites were the largest animals of the seas and highest in rank. Of them there were numerous kinds, varying in size from the sixth of an inch to two feet.
IV .- THE TRENTON LIMESTONE PERIOD.
Next above the Potsdam and ealeiferous sandrocks there appears stretching aeross the county a narrow belt of the Trenton period.
First in order, overlapping the calciferous sandrock or abutting against it, come the Birdseye, Black River, and Trenton limestones. The Chazy limestone seems to run into the others of the group before it reaches the Hudson river, on the borders of the county.
In this period sea-weeds are the only fossil plants. Two species are found, the Buthotriphis gracilis and B. succu- losus.
The seas of the Trenton period were densely populated with animal life. With the Trenton period first appear species of undoubted polyps, the true coral animals of the seas. .
The different species of the lower forms of animal life shown in the fossils of the limestone period are too numer- ous to name in this article.
V .- THE HUDSON PERIOD OF SLATES AND SHALES.
Covering all the southeastern part of the county of Sar- atoga, as the Laurentian rocks cover the northwestern, lie the strata of the slates and shales of the Hudson river group. Between these wide beds of slate and shale, and the equally wide beds of the Laurentian formation, run the narrow strips of the Potsdam calciferous sandstones and Trenton limestones. Such, in a word, is the interesting geologie situation of Saratoga County.
The life, both animal and vegetable, of the Hudson river period, is quite identical with the life of the Trenton period, none of which, the reader will bear in mind, rises higher in the scale of being than the sub-kingdom of Articulates.
VI .- THE POST-TERTIARY PERIOD.
The next period that attracts our attention in studying the geology of Saratoga is the Post-tertiary period, which ushers in the present state of things on the earth's surface.
After the highest strata of the Hudson group of rocks had been deposited in the primordial ocean's bed, there must have been an upheaval of the land above the waters in the region of the Hudson valley, leaving these rocks high and dry. But countless centuries of time intervened before the age of man upon the earth.
18
HISTORY OF SARATOGA COUNTY, NEW YORK.
The Post-tertiary period in America includes two epochs : I. The GLACIAL, or that of drift.
2. The CHAMPLAIN.
Next follows (3) the TERRACE epoch, a transition epoch, in the course of which the peculiar Post-tertiary life ends, and the age of man opens upon the world.
The Drift period is well represented in all the central and western parts of Saratoga County.
The term Drift includes the gravel, sand, stones, and boulders, forming low hills, and covering even the moun- tain tops in many places.
The Drift is derived from the rocks to the north of where its beds occur, and is supposed to have been transported by the ice fields of the glacial period. In many places the sur- face rocks of the limestones are worn smooth, and marked by the scratches and grooves caused doubtless by the pas- sage over them of heavy beds of ice, filled with stones, sand, and gravel.
The Champlain and Terrace epochs are well represented in Saratoga County by the extensive beds of what are called "Saratoga Sands," and the clay hills of the river- valley, which it would seem were deposited along the re- ceding shore of a later ocean that had again covered the land during the Post-tertiary period. It is quite evident that the long, narrow bed of Saratoga sands, which runs across the county from northeast to southwest, was once bnt the shifting sands of the ocean's beach, when its waters washed the foot-hills of the Adirondacks, in the Post-ter- tiary world.
A volume could be written upon the interesting geology of the county of Saratoga, of which but a mere outline is above given.
In a succeeding chapter something will be said upon the origin of the numerous and wonderful mineral springs of Saratoga County, a subject properly belonging to geological science, yet so closely identified with the industrial and social interests of the people of the county as to make it to them a matter of absorbing interest.
CHAPTER V.
THE INDIAN OCCUPANCY.
I .- SA-RAGHI-TO-GA.
WITHIN the territory now comprised in the county of Saratoga once lay the favorite hunting-grounds of the Mohawk branch of the Iroquois or Five Nations, of central New York.
One of the most famous of these hunting-grounds was ealled by them Sa-ragh-to-gu, from which the county derives its name.
Among the earliest dates in which the name Saratoga appears in history is the year 1684. It was not then the name of a town, nor of a county, neither was it the name of a great watering-place; but it was the name of an old Indian hunting-ground located along both sides of the Hudson river. The Hudson, after it breaks through its last mountain barrier above Glen's Falls, for many miles of
its course runs through a wider valley. After winding for a while through this wider valley, it reaches the first series of its bordering hills at a point in the stream nearly opposite Saratoga lake. This old hunting-ground was situated where the outlying hills begin to crowd down to the river-banks, and was called, in the significant Indian tongue, Se-ruch-ta-gue, or the "hill-side country of the great river."*
It has also been said that Saratoga, in the Indian lan- guage, means the " place of the swift water," in allusion to the rapids and falls that break the stillness of the stream where the hill-side country begins on the river.t
Then, again, an Indian whose name was O-ron-hia-tek-ha, of the Caugh-na-wa-ga on the St. Lawrence, who was well acquainted with the Mohawk dialect, informed Dr. Hough, the historian, that Saratoga was from the Indian Sa-ra- ta-ke, meaning " a place where the track of the heel may be seen," in allusion to a spot near by, where depressions like foot-prints may be seen in the rocks.t
But whether its meaning be this, that, or the other, I am sure it is gratifying to ns all that this famous resort, sitnated as it is on American soil, bears an American name.
As early as 1684, this hill-side country of the Hudson, the ancient Indian Se-rach-ta-gue, was sold by the chiefs of the Mohawks to Peter Philip Schnyler and six other eminent citizens of Albany, and the Indian grant con- firmed by the English government. This old hunting- ground then became known in history as the Saratoga patent. This was the Saratoga of the olden time. It is called on some old maps So-roe-to-gos land.
In the year 1687, three years after the Mohawks had sold this hunting-ground, and the patent had been granted, Governor Dongan, of New York, attempted to induce a band of Christian Iroquois that the French missionaries had led to Cach-na-ona-ga to return and settle in ancient Se-rach-ta-gue.§ This was done to form a barrier between the then frontier town of Albany and the hostile French and Indians on the north. Some of their descendants still make an annual pilgrimage to the springs, and, encamp- ing in the groves near by, form an interesting part of the great eoncourse of visitors.
But it will be seen that the ground on which the village of Saratoga Springs is built, and the region in which the famous mineral springs are found, formed no part of the old hunting-ground and patent of Saratoga. The So-roe- to-gos land of the olden time lay along the Hudson, and extended no farther west than Saratoga lake.
II .- KAY-AD-ROS-SE-RA.
The Indian name for the territory in which the famous mineral springs were found was Kay-ad-ros-se-ra.||
It was one of the favorite hunting-grounds of the Iroquois,
* Stecle's Analysis, p. 13, N. Y. His. Col.
t Vide Judge Scott's historical address at Ballston Spa, July 4, 1876; also, Reminiscences of Saratoga, by Wm. L. Stone, p. 5.
# Ilough's History of St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties, p. 189. But Morgan, in his League of the Iroquois, says the signification of Saratoga is lost.
¿ Doc. His. of N. Y., vol. ii. p. 156.
| So written in Claude Joseph Santhier's map of 1779. Fide Doc. Ilis. of N. Y., vol. i. p. 774.
19
IHISTORY OF SARATOGA COUNTY, NEW YORK.
and lay in the angle between the two great rivers, to the south of a line drawn from Glen's Falls on the Hudson westerly to near Amsterdam on the Mohawk.
The forests of ancient Kayadrossera were full of game, and its lakes and streams swarmed with fish. The her- ring* ran up the west side of the Hudson, and through Fish creek, giving rise to its name, into Lake Saratoga in immense numbers. The shad ran up on the east side of the river, and lay in vast schools in the falls and rapids above and below Fort Edward. The sturgeon frequented the sprouts of the Mohawk, and sunned themselves in the basin below Cohoest Falls.
Even whales sometimes came up the Hudson river in the early colonial times as far as this old hunting-ground.
" I cannot forbear," says Vanderdonck, "to mention that in the year 1647, in the month of March, when, by a great freshet the water was fresh almost to the great bay, there were two whales of tolerable size up the river; the one turned back, but the other stranded and stuck not far from the great fall of the Cohoes."t
The wild animals of Kayadrossera were attracted in im- mense numbers by the saline properties of the mineral springs that then bubbled up in its deepest shades, all un- known save to them and its Indian owners. In this " para- dise of sportsmen" the Mohawks and their nearer sister tribes of the Iroquois, the Oneidas and Onondagas, and sometimes the farther off Cayugas and Senecas, built their hunting-lodges every summer around its springs and on the banks of its lakes and rivers. It will be seen that wild ancient Kayadrossera was as famous in the old time to the red man as modern Saratoga is to-day to the white man.
But Samuel Shelton Broughton, attorney-general of the province, obtained a license from the governor, in behalf of himself and company, to purchase from the Indians a tract
of land known by the Indian name of Kayadrossera. This license is dated April 22, 1703. In pursuance of this license a purchase was effected of Kayadrossera, and an Indian deed given the 6th of October, 170-4, signed by the sachems of the tribe.
On the 2d day of November, 1708, a patent was granted by Queen Anne to " her loving subjects Nauning Her- mance, Johannes Beekman, Rip Von Dam," and ten others, of the whole of Kayadrossera. But it was not until the year 1768 that the deed given by the Indians in 1704 was confirmed by the tribe, and then only through the powerful influence of Sir William Johnson.
On the 24th day of March, 1772, three years before the War of the Revolution broke out, and about the time the first white settler was building his rude cabin at the springs, these two patents of Kayadrossera and Saratoga were united by the colonial government into a district. The name Kay- adrossera was dropped, and the district named after the sinaller patent, and called the district of Saratoga. Since then the grand old Indian name Kayadrossera, so far as ter- ritory is concerned, has fallen out of human speech, and is only heard in connection with the principal stream and
mountain chain of the great hunting-ground so famous in Indian story.
The old hunting-ground, the beautiful lake, and the famous springs have all, since the act of the 24th of March, 1772, borne the name of Saratoga.
III .- THE FOUR HUNTING-GROUNDS OF THE IROQUOIS.
Besides these two famous hunting-grounds, the Five Na - tions had in common four great beaver-hunting countries.
1st. One of these was called by them Couch-sach-ra-ge, " the dismal wilderness."
On Governor Pownal's map of the northern British col- onies of 1776, across the region that comprises the wilder- ness, is written the following inscription :
THIS VAST TRACT OF LAND, WHICH IS THE ANTIENT COUCH-SACH-RA-GE, ONE OF THE FOUR BEAVER-HUNTING COUNTRIES OF THE SIX NATIONS, IS NOT YET SURVEYED.
So this great wilderness was the old Indian hunting- ground-Couch-sach-ra-ge-of the Iroquois, which, like the ocean and the desert, refuses to be subdued by man.
2d. Another was called by them O-hee-o, " the beautiful country," and lay to the south and east of Lake Erie, now part of the State of Ohio.
3d. The third was called by them Tienck-souck-rond-ite, and lay between Lake Erie and the Ilinois.
4th. The last was called by them Scaniad-eri-ada, mean- ing " beyond the lake." It lay to the northwest of Lake Ontario.
In 1684 the Mohawks and Oncidas, by a treaty hehl in Albany, sold to the English king their right of sovereignty to these hunting-grounds.
On Nov. 14, 1726, the Senecas, Cayugas, and Ononda- gus, by deed, also conveyed their interest in the sovereignty of these grounds to the British king, which was the founda- tion of England's claim to the country against France.
IV .- THE HO-DE-NO-SAU-NEE.
It has been seen that at the time of its first exploration by Europeans, in the early years of the seventeenth century, the county of Saratoga formed a part of the territory and hunting-grounds of the great Indian league or confederacy, called by the English the Five Nations, by the French the Iroquois, and by themselves the Ho-de-no-sau-nce, or the " people of the long house."
Their country, called by them Ho-de-no-sau-nec-ga,§ and extending from the Hudson to Lake Erie, from the St. Law- renee to the valleys of the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and the Alleghany, embraced the whole of central, of northern, and large parts of southern and western New York. It was divided between the several nations by well-defined bound- ary-lines, running north and south, which they called " lines of property."
The territory of northern New York belonged princi-
& l'ide Annals of Albany, vol. ii. p. 230.
t The Indian name for Cohoes Falls was Gu-ha-nome, meaning the
" shipwrecked canoe." Vide Morgan's League of the Iroquois.
# Judge Benson, in Mansell's Annals of Albany, vol. ii. p. 226.
¿ See Morgan's League of the Iroquois.
20
HISTORY OF SARATOGA COUNTY, NEW YORK.
pally to the Mohawks and the Queidas, the Onondagas owning a narrow strip of land along the eastern shore of Lake Ontario.
The line of property between the Mohawks and the Oncidas began on the St. Lawrence river at the present town of Waddington, and running south nearly coincident with the line between Lewis and Herkimer counties, struck the Mohawk river at Utica.
The country lying to the east of this line of property, embracing what is now the greater part of Saratoga County, formed a part of Gu-ne-a-ga-o-no-ga, the land of the Mo- hawks. The territory lying westerly of this line, including the fertile valley of the Black river and the highlands of the Lesser Wilderness, which lies between the upper valley of the Black river and Lake Ontario, belonged to O-nu- yote-lea-o-no-ga, the country of the Oneidas.
It was the custom of the Indians, whenever the hunting- grounds of a nation bordered on a lake, to include the whole of it, if possible ; so the line of property between the Onei- das and the Onoudugas bent westerly around the Oneida lake, giving the whole of that to the Oneidas, and deflected easterly again around Lake Ontario in favor of the Onon- dugas.
These three nations claimed the whole of the territory of northern New York. But the northern part of the great wilderness was also claimed by the Adirondacks, a Canadian nation of Algonquin lineage, and, being disputed territory, was the " dark and bloody ground" of the old Indian traditions, as it afterwards became in the French and English colonial history.
V .- TWO FAMILIES OF NATIONS.
The Indians who inhabited the Atlantic slope and the basin of the great lakes were divided into two great families of nations. These two great families were known as the Iroquois and the Algonquin families .* They differed radi- cally in both language and lineage, as well as in many of their manners and customs.
Need help finding more records? Try our genealogical records directory which has more than 1 million sources to help you more easily locate the available records.