USA > Pennsylvania > Northampton County > History of Northampton County [Pennsylvania] and the grand valley of the Lehigh, Volume I > Part 2
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The Delaware and Iroquois were the principal languages spoken throughout eastern North America, and all others were dialects of them, but the Delaware language bore no resemblance to the Iroquois. Though the three different tribes of the Delaware had the same language, yet they spoke different dialects. The Unamies and Wunalachtikos, who inhabited the eastern coast of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, nearly agree in pronuncia- tion, but the dialect of the Minsi, who lived in the Minisinks above the Blue Mountains, differed so much from the former that they would hardly be able to understand each other did they not keep up a continual intercourse.
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The language of the Delawares had an agreeable sound, both in common conversation and public delivery. The dialect spoken by the Unamies and Wunalachtikos was peculiarly grateful to the ear, and much more easily learned by an European than that of the Minsi, which was rougher and spoken with a broad accent. However, the Minsi dialect is a key to many expressions in the dialect of the other two tribes. The pronunciation of the Delaware language was generally easy, only the ch is a very strong guttural. The letters f, v, p, k and r are wanting in their alphabet. They omitted them entirely in foreign words, or pronounced them differently ; for example: Pilipp for Philip, Petelus for Petrus, Pliscilla for Priscilla. The sense of many words depended entirely on the accent, and great care was necessary in defining the meaning, as an Indian was loath to repeat his utterances.
In matters relating to common life the language of the Indians was remarkably copious; they had frequently several names for one and the same thing under different circumstances. For instance, the Delawares had ten different names for a bear, according to its age or sex; such names had often not the least resemblance to each other. They had no terms for the things in which they were not conversant and engaged, nor did they take any pains to enrich their language in proportion as their knowledge extended, but rather chose to express themselves in a figurative or descriptive manner. The following examples will be sufficient to give an idea :
I. The sky is overcast with dark, blustery clouds-We shall have troublesome times; we shall have war.
2. A black cloud has arisen yonder-War is threatened from that quarter or from that nation.
3. The path is already shut up-Hostilities have commenced; the war is begun.
4. The rivers run with blood-War rages in the country.
5. To lay down the hatchet or slip the hatchet under the bed-To cease fighting for a while during a truce; or to place the hatchet at hand, so that it may be taken up again at a moment's warning.
6. To bury the hatchet-To make or conclude a peace.
7. Singing birds-Tale bearers, liars.
8. Don't listen to the singing of the birds which fly by !- Don't believe what stragglers tell you.
9. You stopped my ears !- You kept the thing a secret from me.
IO. I draw the thorns out of your feet and legs, grease your stiffened joints with oil and wipe the sweat off your body !- I make you feel comfortable after your fatiguing journey, that you may enjoy yourself while with us.
II. The path between us is again open !- We are again on friendly terms.
Thus the language of their orators, who most sensibly felt the want of proper expressions, was full of images, and they found even gesture and grimace necessary to convey their sentiments. When they saw new objects they commonly observed that these were things which have no name; now and then a council was held to consult about a term descriptive of a new thing. Thus they have chosen a word to express "brown color," which signifies "the middle between black and white"; for buckles they invented a word meaning "metal shoestrings."
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THE ABORIGINES
The want of proper expressions in spiritual things, of which they were totally ignorant, was most perplexing. But after the Gospel had been preached among them, the language of the Delawares and Iroquois gained much in this respect and improved in volume. The following is the Lord's Prayer in the Delaware language:
Ki Wetochemelenk, talli epian Awossagame. Machelendosutsch Ktelle- wunsowoagan Ksakimowagan peyewiketsch Ktelitehewagan leketsch yun Achquidhackanike elgiqui leek talli Awossagame Milineen eligischquik qunagischuk Achpoan woak miwelendammauwincen n'tschannauchsowagan- nena elgiqui niluna miwelendammauwenk nik tschetschanilawequengik woak kalschi n'pawuneen li achquelschlowaganink shuckund ktennineen untschi medhicking Alod Knihillatamen ksakimowagan woak ktallewussoagan woak ktallowilissowagan ne untschi nallemiwi Nanne leketsch.
To illustrate the difficulties encountered by the early interpreters and translators in making the English language in its most common form fit the limited vocabulary of the Indian language, the literal translation of the above prayer is here given :
Thou our Father there dwelling beyond the clouds, magnified thy name; thy kingdom come on; thy thought come to pass here all over the earth. The same as it is there beyond the clouds. Through this day the usual daily bread, and forgive to us our transgressions, the same as we who are here we mutually forgive them who have injured us, and let us come to that, that we fall into temptation, rather keep us free from all evil, for thou claimest kingdom and the superior power and all magnificence from hereto- fore always, amen.
It was not expected to find arts and sciences amongst the wild Indians, nor even any inclination to study them; unable to read or write, it was most difficult to give them any idea of those accomplishments. If a written or printed paper or book was shown them, and something read or spoken of as contained in it, they imagined that a spirit spoke secretly to the reader, dictating whatever he wished to know. Some thought that the paper, when written upon, could speak to the reader, but so as to be heard by no one else; therefore, a letter, particularly if it be sealed, was considered as a very sacred thing. They would not take pains to learn either to read or write. If any peace contracts or commercial papers were required to be delivered to the Europeans, signed by their chiefs, captains or councillors, they would never sign their name themselves, but get others to make the signature; then each would add his mark, which was often nothing but a crooked line or a cross, sometimes a line in the form of a turkey's foot, a tortoise or of some other creature.
The Delawares knew nothing regarding their history but what had been verbally transmitted to them by their fathers and grandfathers. Thus the stories were handed down from father to son, and to impress it upon their young minds they would enlarge on the original so that in the course of time and the numerous repetitions the legendary tale lost all semblance of its original import. When they spoke of their ancestors they boasted that they were mighty warriors and exhibited many feats of valor.
They delighted in describing their genealogies, and were so well versed in them that they marked every branch of the family with the greatest
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precision. They could also add the character of their ancestors, both in the male and female line. Though they were indifferent about the history of former times and ignorant of the art of reading and writing, yet their ancestors were well aware that they stood in need of something to enable them to convey their ideas to a distant nation, or preserve the memory of remarkable events, at least for a season. To this end they invented some- thing like hieroglyphics and also strings of wampum; their hieroglyphics were characteristic figures which were more frequently painted upon trees than cut in stone. These were intended to caution against danger, to mark a place of safety, to direct the wanderer into the right path, to record some important transaction, or to commemorate the deeds and achievements of their celebrated heroes, and were as intelligible to them as a written account would be to us. For this purpose they generally preferred a tall, well-grown tree; they then would peel the bark on one side, scrape the wood till it became white and clean, then draw the figure of the hero whose exploits they wished to celebrate. These drawings would last fully fifty years, and it was a great consolation to the dying warrior that his glorious deeds would be preserved so long, for the admiration of posterity. Traveling Indians who might happen to camp at a certain place while on a hunting trip, would record the fact on one of the trees, giving an account of the amount of game secured, what tribe they belonged to, and other statements.
Among the different tribes there were no fixed laws, but those in authority found no difficulty of governing them. Their councillors and chiefs were capable men, and whatever they saw or did was never questioned by subordinates, as they were proud of seeing such able men conduct the affairs of their nation; the Indians were little troubled about what they were doing, knowing that the result of their deliberations would be made public in due time. Matters of public import were generally made known by the chief through the orator, for which purpose they would be called together and assemble at the council-house; and if it was found necessary to require a contribution of money for carrying the desires of the chiefs into effect, the entire assembly cheerfully complied. The chiefs were very careful in pre- serving for their own information and that of future generations, all important deliberations and treaties made at any time between them and other nations.
For the purpose of refreshing their own memories and of instructing one or more of their most capable and promising young men in these matters, they assembled once or twice a year. On these occasions they always met at a chosen spot in the woods, at a small distance from the town, where a fire was kindled, and at the proper time provisions would be brought out to them there on a large piece of bark or on a blanket, and all the documents laid out in such order that all could distinguish each particular speech the same as we know the principal contents of an instrument of writing by the endorsement on it.
If parchment writings were connected with the belts of wampum (strings of beads woven into belts), they would apply to some trusty white man to read the contents to them. Their speaker then, who was always chosen from among those who were endowed with superior talents and who had already been trained up in the business, would rise and in an audible voice
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THE ABORIGINES
deliver with the gravity that the subject required, the contents, sentence after sentence, until he had finished the whole subject. On the manner in which the belt or string of wampum was handled by the speaker much depended; the turning of the belt, which took place when he had finished one-half of his speech, when done properly, by it was as well known how far the speaker had advanced in his speech as with us in taking a glance at the pages of a book or pamphlet while reading, and a good speaker would be able to point out the exact place on a belt, which was the answer to each particular sentence, the same as we can point out a passage in a book. Belts and strings, when done with by the speaker, were again handed to the chief, who put them up carefully in the speechbag or pouch. These belts of wampum were of different dimensions both as to length and breadth ; white and black wampum were the kinds used-the former that which was good, a peace-friendship, good will; the latter the reverse-yet occasionally the black also was made use of as peace errands when the white could not be procured; but previous to its being produced for such purpose it was daubed all over with white clay, or anything to change the color from black to white.
Roads from one friendly nation to another were generally marked on the belt by one or two rows of white wampum interwoven in the black, and running through the middle and from end to end; it meant that they were on good terms and kept up a friendly intercourse with each other. A black belt with the mark of a hatchet made on it with red paint was a war belt, which, when sent to a nation, together with a twist or roll of tobacco, was an invitation to join in a war. If the nation so invited smoked of this tobacco, and said it smoked well, they thus gave their consent, and from that moment became allied. If, however, they declined to smoke, it was a sign of rejection. Although at their councils they do not seat themselves after the manner of the white people, yet the attitude they place them- selves in is not chargeable to them as a want of respect. Faithful to the trust committed to them, they were careless of ceremonies from which the native cannot derive any benefit. They sat themselves promiscuously around a council fire, some leaning one way, some another, so that a stranger on viewing them might be led to conclude they were unattentive to what was said, or had become tired of attending. By sitting in this position they were given the opportunity of being intent on what was said and attentive to the subject under their consideration, as they had no object to look at which might draw off their attention. They were all ears, though they did not stare at the speaker; the fact was, nothing could draw their attention from the subject under deliberation unless the house they were sitting in should take fire or be attacked by an enemy.
Wampum is an Indian word for mussel; a number of these mussels strung together was called a.string of wampum, which, when a fathom long, was termed a belt, but the word "string" was commonly used, whether it be long or short. The mussels from which wampum was made were found principally along the coast of Maryland and Virginia, and were valued according to the color. Having first sawed these shells into square pieces about a quarter of an inch in length, an eighth in thickness, they ground
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them round or oval upon a common grindstone, then a hole was bored lengthwise through each, large enough to admit a wire thong. The black wampum was more precious than the white on account of its scarcity. The Delawares and Shawnees had a place in the Durham Valley where they procured jasper, from which they made black wampum. When the white man saw the value of wampum he set up a lathe and made the tiny beads in great abundance, and a profitable vocation it proved to be.
Besides the above-mentioned by which the Indians commemorate certain events, they likewise had songs in praise of their heroes, extolling their glorious exploits; these were frequently sung, but merely from memory. They taught them to their children, and those who loved poetry composed more, so that there was no want of them.
They required but very little arithmetic to keep an account of their goods and chattels, yet they were not wholly unacquainted with it. While some of the nations could only count ten or twenty, they would express a greater number by pointing to the hairs on their head, signifying that the number exceeded their power of calculation; but the Delawares understood very little about our letters and cyphers, yet could count into the thousands. They could count regularly to ten, make a mark, proceed to the next ten, and so on to the end of the account; then, by adding the tens, they found hundreds and thousands. The numerals as expressed in the Delaware lan- guage were as follows, which also illustrates the difference between the two tribes, the Minsi above the mountains, and the Unamie below the mountains :
MINSI
UNAMIE
Gutti
I
N'gutti
Nischa
'2
Nischa
Nacha
3
Nacha
Newa
4
Newo
Nalan
5
Palenaclı
Guttasch
6
Guttasch
Nischoasch
7
Nishasch
Chaasch
8
Chasch
Nolewi
9
Peschkonk
Wimbat
IO
Tellen
Those Indians who understood the value of money had learned it chiefly from the English and Dutch. The Delawares called pence, pennig; and stivers, stipel. If they wished to calculate a sum of money with exactness they would take Indian corn, calling every corn a penny or stiver, adding as many as are necessary to make florins, shillings and pounds.
Most of them determined a number of years by so many winters, summers, springs or autumns since such an event took place, and other facts ; few of them knew exactly how many years old they were after thirty. Some of them reckoned from the time of a hard frost or a deep snow in such a year ; from a war with the Indians, or from the building of Pittsburgh or Philadelphia, as "when Pittsburgh was built I was ten years old," or as "in spring when we boil sugar, or when we plant, I shall be so old."
Of geography they knew nothing; some imagined the earth was sup- ported on the back of an immense turtle who floated on the sea; but they had an idea of maps, and could delineate plans of countries known to them
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THE ABORIGINES
upon birch bark with some exactness. The distance from one place to another they would not mark in miles, but by days' journeys of about fifteen or twenty miles each. These were divided into half or quarter day's journeys, and with accuracy when sending out war parties, or for hunting purposes, the road could be clearly described and time required to make the journey. An Indian would never lose his way in the woods, though some were between two and three hundred miles in length and as many in breadth. Besides knowing the courses of the rivers and brooks and the situation of the hills, he was safely directed by the branches and moss growing upon the trees. They marked the boundaries of their different territories chiefly by mountains, and these in smaller divisions by lakes, rivers and brooks, all measurements in straight lines if possible. They directed their course at night with the Polar star, and when the sun set they thought it went under water; when the moon did not shine they said it was dead. The three last days before the new moon they called naked days; the moon's first appear- ance was called resurrection.
The Delawares divided the year into four quarters, and each quarter into periods. But their calculations were somewhat imperfect and could not agree when to begin the new year, so their year generally began with March. This month the fish passed up the streams, and was known as the shad time; April, planting time; May, hoeing time; June, the time when the deer became red; July, the time of raising the earth about the corn; August, when the corn is in milk; September, first month in autumn ; October, harvest time; November, known among all Indians as time for hunting; December, time when the bucks cast their antlers; January, squirrel period, the squirrels then coming out of the holes; and February, frog season, as at that time the frogs began to croak.
They did not divide the months into weeks or days, but into nights; an Indian would say, "I was traveling so many nights." But if he did not stay from home all the night he termed it, "I was a day's journey from home." Half day was expressed by pointing to the sun directly above, and quarter day by its rising or setting. If they wished to speak more accurately they would point to other marks intelligible to themselves. By the course of the sun they could determine the time of day with nearly as much exact- ness as we do by a watch; "I will be with you tomorrow when the sun stands in such place." The growth of the corn was also a mark of time; "I will return when the corn is grown so high"; "I will do this and that when the corn is in bloom, or ripe." Thunder they conceived to be a spirit dwelling in the mountains and occasionally coming forth to make himself heard.
In their ideas of man, they made proper distinction between body and soul, the latter of which was considered by them as a spiritual and immortal being. Their ideas of the nature of a spirit did not preclude their represent- ing good spirits in a human form, but that these excelled even the Indians, whom they considered as the most beautiful of the human race in comeliness and perfection. They considered the soul as immortal, and believed all Indians who led a good life would go to a good place after death, where they would have everything in abundance, but that all who had lived in
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wickedness would rove about without any fixed abode and be restless, dis- satisfied and melancholy.
They were very superstitious, made many sacrifices to their deities, practiced many absurdities in their belief and fear of the evil spirits, and differed but little from the religious ceremonies of the western Indian nations of today. While there was a similarity in worship, there was a vast differ- ence in the dress, habitation and mode of living, and we will, therefore, forego an extended account of their religious practices and give fuller detail of domestic habits of the Delawares.
In their dress and ornaments they displayed much singularity, but little art; to avoid clothing as a burden, they dressed very light. The men wore a blanket hung loose over both shoulders, or only over the left, that the right arm could be free to tie or pin the upper ends together. Formerly these coverings were made of turkey feathers woven together with the thread of the wild hemp, but these went out of fashion with the coming of the white man, who furnished them with a readymade blanket woven in gaudy colors. The rich wore a piece of blue, red or black cloth, about two yards long, around their waists. In some, the lower seam of this cloth was decorated with ribbons, wampum or corals. The poor Indians covered themselves with nothing but a bearskin, and even the rich did the same in cold weather, or put on a pelise of beaver or other fur, with the hair turned inward. These were either tanned by rubbing in water or smoke-dried, and then rubbed until they became soft.
The men never suffered the hair to grow long; some even pulled so much of it out by the roots that only a little remained on the crown of the head, forming a round crest of about two inches in diameter. This they divided into two tails, plaited, tied with ribbons and hanging down, one to the right and the other to the left. The crown was frequently ornamented with a plume of feathers, placed either upright or in a standing position. At feasts, their hair was frequently decorated with silver rings, corals or wampum, and even with silver buckles. Some wore a bandage around their head, ornamented with as many silver buckles as it would hold.
They bestowed much time and labor in decorating their faces, laying on fresh paint every day, especially if they went out to dance. They sup- posed that it was very proper for brave men to paint, and always studied a change of fashion. Vermilion was their favorite color, and frequently they painted their entire head; here and there black streaks were introduced, or they painted one-half of the face black and the other red. The figures painted upon their faces were of various kinds, every one followed his own fancy, and exerted his powers of invention to excel others and to have something peculiar to himself. One prided himself with the figure of a serpent upon each cheek; another with that of a turtle, deer, bear or some other creature as his arms and signature.
Some would bore a hole through the cartilage of the nose and wear a large pearl or a piece of silver, gold or wampum in it. They would also decorate the lappets of their ears with feathers, flowers, corals or silver crosses. A broad collar made of violet wampum was deemed a most precious ornament, and the rich decorated even their breasts with it. The intent of
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THE ABORIGINES
this ornamentation was not to please others, but to give themselves a coura- geous and formidable appearance. It was customary to rub their bodies with the fat of bears or other animals, which was sometimes colored. This was done to make them supple and to guard against the sting of mosquitoes and other insects. This operation also prevented perspiration, increased their dark color, and gave a greasy, smutty appearance. A tobacco pouch was a most essential piece of an Indian's outfit; it contained his pipe, pocket knife and tinder box, which he always wore with a small axe and long knife in his girdle. Most pouches were made of the whole skin of a young otter, beaver or fox, with an opening at the neck. Those who chose to add orna- ments to the tobacco pouch fastened pearls in the eye-sockets, or had the women adorn them with corals. Some would wear the claw of a buffalo, with a large pendulous pouch of deerskin stained with various colors and neatly worked. The Delawares were fond of a handsome head for their pipes, and preferred those made of a red marble found along the Mississippi river. These were made by the western tribes, and brought east to trade with the Delawares for arrowheads and implements of stone found only along the Delaware.
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