USA > Louisiana > Orleans Parish > New Orleans > Standard history of New Orleans, Louisiana, giving a description of the natural advantages, natural history settlement, Indians, Creoles, municipal and military history, mercantile and commercial interests, banking, transportation, etc. > Part 21
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It seems probable, however, that yellow fever has had lodgment on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico since the Europeans first settled on them. The sailors of
205
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
Columbus were attacked by a violent fever in the West Indies, and Cortez found a similar disease, with the characteristic "black vomit," much dreaded by the Aztecs, whose citics were sometimes half depopulated by its ravages. LaSalle and his soldiers found a deadly fever lurking on the shores of the Mississippi, where many of these hardy pioneers sank into nameless graves. As early as 1647, Mr. Richard Vines, physician and planter in the Barbadoes, records an "absolute plague of fever," and Mr. Hughes, in his "Natural History of Barbadoes," quotes Dr. Gamble's statement that the "new distemper, pestilential fever, or Kendal fever," was most fatal in 1691.
In the French Islands this fever was called "fievre de Siam," and was believed to be a sinister gift from the effete civilization of the far East to the newly planted life of the Western world. It seems certain that yellow fever first appeared in Martinique after the arrival of ships from Siam, but as these vessels, had touched at Brazil, where this form of sickness had prevailed for years, it seems doubtful if the disease can be referred to so distant a source. Dr. Joseph Jones, an eminent author- ity, declares that "yellow fever has been sporadical in two continents since men born under a cold zone were exposed, in low, torrid regions, to miasmatic atmospheres."
It seems probable that the familiar type of fever known as "yellow" was brought to Louisiana by French settlers from the West Indies. The summers of 1701 and 1704 are recorded as most unhealthy, "la maladie" being very prevalent. In the latter year the Chevalier Tonti, Le Vasseur, the Jesuit Donge and thirty soldiers newly arrived, died of it. In 1701 Sauvolle succumbed, and the biographers of Iberville declare that he had an attack of fever at Biloxi, in 1702, which affected his constitution to such a degree that he was obliged to return to France to restore his health. It may be doubted whether this was genuine yellow fever, as the famous soldier and pioneer afterwards died of it in Havana in 1706. Bancroft, who, it is presumed, examined carefully into the facts, notes the great havoc made in Mobile by yellow fever in 1705. The depletion of Bienville's soldiers in 1739 by the same pestilence is mentioned by contemporary writers, but nothing further on the sub- ject is to be found until the influx of refugees from St. Domingo in 1791 brought an invasion of the same scourge.
The governors of Louisiana made gallant efforts, according to the limited sanitary knowledge of the day, to improve the health of the little city. As early as 1726, M. Perrier, on being appointed governor, was charged as follows: "Whereas, it is maintained that the diseases which prevail in New Orleans during the summer proceed from the want of air, and from the city being smothered by the neighboring
206
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
woods, which press so close upon it, it shall be the care of M. Perrier to have them cut down as far as Lake Pontchartrain." Towards the end of the century, Baron Frances Louis Hector de Carondelet, governor of Louisiana, constructed a canal from the city to the lake for drainage purposes. All the laborers engaged in the work were carried off by yellow fever, and a violent epidemic ensued. This epidemic of 1796 was the first to attract widespread notice, and the first to be authentically recorded in New Orleans, but the total absence of medical works and journals ren- ders it impossible to give statistics on the subject. A small pamphlet was published in 1796, dedicated to Baron Carondelet, bearing the title, "Medicaments et preces de la methode de M. Masdevall, medecin du Roe d'Espagne, Charles IV, pour guein tontes les maladies epidemiques, putrides ou malignes." This early benefactor of our colony, M. Masdevall, is said to have been very successful with the Spaniards and negrocs, but the American settlers yielded less readily to treatment. These same Americans were accused of bringing the fever into New Orleans during the en- suing years, until 1803, for numbers of them came annually, in pursuit of commerce, from New York and Philadelphia, where yellow fever raged at that time. The Count de Vergennes declared Louisiana to be the first country of the world, as to the mildness of its climate and its happy situation, and the yellow fever was em- phatically the "stranger's disease." The medical authorities of the day waged a furious controversy over the importation or non-importation, the contagion or non- contagion of the fever; a dispute not always confined to words, since we read in Dr. Dowler's history of the fever that two physicians of Jamaica, Drs. Bennett and Williams, upheld their opinions at the sword's point, fought a duel over the mooted question, and were both killed !
With varying intensity and at longer intervals or shorter, the disease appeared up to 1816. In the following sixty-five years it infested the city every year, although sometimes mildly and sporadically, with only two exceptions, viz., in 1821 and 1861. It was heavily felt in 1817, 1819 and 1820; a fatal epidemic occurred in 1824, an- other in 1832, and a still more dreadful one in 1847, when two thousand eight hun- dred and four victims perished.
The year in which New Orleans suffered most severely was 1853; the first two deaths were reported in the month of May, and the number increased in an alarming manner; in July there were 1,521 deaths, and in the month of August 5,133 oc- curred from it. It declined very rapidly from that time, and lingered in the city until December, four deaths being reported in that month. During the four months when the fever was at its height, 7,849 deaths plunged the community into gloom
207
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
and mourning. No satisfactory explanation of the unusual and excessive virulenee of the disease during this outbreak has ever been formulated. The mortality from other causes was also appalling, the total number of deaths being 15,787. This shows a total percentage of 102.42 per 1,000. Only one year in the past eighty-five has equalled this fatal '53. In 1832, the terrible cholera year, the death rate amounted to 147.10 per 1,000. Thus 1853 stands at the head of the list for the greatest mortality in yellow fever, and second in the percentage of deaths from all causes in the last eighty years. The improved sanitation and medieation of the day induee the firm conviction that '53 will maintain its sinister pre-eminence, and that our city will never again be subjected to such devastation. A notable fact connected with that epidemie is that only eighty-seven of the deaths were reported as natives of New Orleans, 3,855 were not classified, and the remaining 3,907 were nearly all Irish and Germans. The year 1858 was the next most malignant fever year. The population had increased to 165,450, and the reported deaths from yellow fever were 4,855-29.30 per 1,000. Next, 1847 follows in order of severity, 2,80+ deaths being reported, 25.80 per 1,000. The year 1878 is next in order; death rate from yellow fever, 19.20 per 1,000; 1837, with a mortality of 19 per 1,000; 1833 is sixth in order, mortality 17.30 per 1,000; 1867 is seventh in rank; mortality, 17.10 per 1,000. In this year the fever began in June, slowly increased in July, was de- clared epidemic in August, raged violently during September and October, dimin- ished rapidly in November and disappeared about the middle of December. The number of eases was much greater in proportion to population than ever before, but the type of fever was much milder, and the mortality less in consequence. The number of cases in the city has been variously estimated at from 40,000 to 60,000. The mortality among the United States troops stationed here was much higher than among the citizens. Dr. Delcry comments upon the remarkable faet that many deaths oeeurred among the native creole population of French descent. Other no- table features of this epidemic were its mildness among the negro population, its sad severity among children, the oeeurrenee of many fatal eases after cold weather had set in, and the fact that it was preceded and followed by many eases of eholera and dysentery.
The year 1878 was the last of the terrible epidemies with which this city has been afflicted. From its inception the fever was most malignant in type, attaeking all elasses indiscriminately, cspecially young children. The blind panic of the people was increased by exaggerated reports in the newspapers; never was such selfish and unreasoning terror manifested during previous epidemies. The popula-
208
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
tion fled in every direction, abandoning friends and kindred ; parents even deserted their children, and the little ones were found dead in bed with their shoes on, having died unattended and alone. The number of cases reported was 23,540 and the number of deaths 4,056. Probably the mortality due to yellow fever was larger, for many cases were reported as malarial, hemorrhagic fever, pernicious fever, congest- ive fever, cerebro-spinal meningitis, etc. The saddest fact connected with this epi- demic was the appalling death rate among children under sixteen years of age.
From 1880 to 1897, except for an occasional sporadic case, the city was en- tirely free from yellow fever. In 1897-98 and '99 it again made its appearance, and although the type seemed to be extremely mild, the great majority of those attacked recovering after a very short illness, yet many of the cases presented the disease in its most malignant form, the patient growing rapidly and steadily worse from the first development of the characteristic symptoms, until death ended the suffering in a few days.
The first case in 1897 occurred at Ocean Springs, Miss., Past Assistant Surgeon Wasdin, Marine Hospital Service, making the diagnosis and announcement. On September 6 the first case was reported in New Orleans by Dr. Sydney L. Theard. The patient was a child, recently arrived from Ocean Springs, and it died after a short illness. The city at this time was full of fevers, autumnal, bilious, intermit- tent, remittent, etc., which continued throughout the fall. When it is considered that very many of the practitioners in New Orleans had never seen a case of yellow fever, nineteen years having elapsed without an epidmic, it is not unreasonable to suppose that errors in diagnosis were made, and that many cases reported as such were not yellow fever. A very mild type had apparently replaced the malignant fever of former years. The writer treated about ninety cases of fever between September 1 and December 1, with only three deaths; two of these had received no treatment until the end was near, because of fear of house quarantine.
In all cases reported to the Board of Health, flags were tacked on the resi- dences of the patients and guards placed at the doors night and day. The strictest house quarantine was enforced as far as possible, inflicting the greatest hardship, in many cases, and frequently proving utterly valueless as far as the isolation of the patient was concerned, for the other occupants of the houses passed in and out through side and back doors. In one place, where the writer was attending a fever patient, step-ladders were used by the people of the house and their friends, who climbed over the back fence into their neighbors' premises at will, and passed thence into the street, while the guard sat, supremely unconscious of it all, at the front
209
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
door. One noticeable and suggestive fact concerning the fever of 1897 was the number of cases occurring on St. Charles and Jackson avenues. These streets are paved with asphalt and kept scrupulously clean ; how shall we explain the prevalence of fever on them, whereas on many unpaved and uncared-for streets, notably Gal- vez street, which has a wide, uncovered, dirty and ill-smelling canal in the center of it, filled with stagnant water, not a single case of yellow fever was reported ?
Notwithstanding the terrible reports circulated by some of the Northern pa- pers as to the condition of affairs in New Orleans, the city, during the summers of '97, '98 and '99 was comparatively healthy, and the mortality reports show a smaller death rate than we find for the same period of time in winter.
A backward glance over these three years leads to the conviction that the greatest cause of alarm and panic was the exaggerated rumors and statements with flaming headlines in the public press. The fever of these years was of the mildest type; no disease was ever milder, or occasioned less actual suffering. Epidemics of typhoid, small-pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever or la grippe in other cities, with far greater suffering and mortality, occasion no such alarm and excitement. The rav- ages of past epidemics, the mortality and loss, have been fairly stated; it is only fair also to add that in the entire valley of the Mississippi, an area of nearly one- third of a million square miles, the aggregate mortality from yellow fever up to the present time will not exceed that of a single year in old Spain, where it has amounted, by official reports, to one hundred and twenty thousand, in localities frec from swamps and even mountainous in character. (Dr. Bennet Dowler.)
It is not the province of this paper to discuss the ætiology, morbid anatomy, symptoms, etc., of yellow fever. But it is proper to add that the cause of this discase is the micro-organism discovered by Professor Guiseppe Sanarelli of the University of Bologna, Italy, and named by him "bacillus icteroides."
To save the reader the trouble of wading through an account of the fever as it prevailed each year, and as a matter of convenience and reference, I append a table, chronologically arranged, giving the number of deaths from fever each year from 1817 to 1900, and the population of the city during those years. No record of deaths previous to 1817 has been found :
210
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
Year.
Popu- lation.
No of Deaths.
Year.
Popu- lation.
No. of Deaths.
1769
3,100
Fever intro- duced by slaves from Africa (Norman)
1787
5,284
....
1850
129,747
107
1788
5,338
1851
138,599
17
1791
6,245
Fever
1852
147,441
456
1796
8,756
Fever
1853
154,132
7,849
1799
8,810
Fever
1854
156,556
2,425
1800
8,940
Fever
1855
158,980
2,670
1801
9,038
Fever
1856
161,404
81
1804
12,165
Fever
1857
163,828
200
1808
17,081
None
1858
165,450
4,855
1809
17,120
Fever
1859
166,500
92
1810
17,242
None
1860
168,670
15
1811
18,235
Fever
1861
169,907
0
1812
19,229
Fever
1862
171,134
2
1813
20,212
None
1863
172,361
2
1814
21,216
None
1864
173,588
6
1815
22,209
None
1865
174,815
1
1816
23,303
None
1866
178,042
185
1817
24,196
823
1867
181,269
3,107
1818
25,190
115
1868
184,496
3
1819
26,183
425
1869
187,723
3
1820
27,176
400
1870
191,418
588
1821
29,441
0
1871
193,412
54
1822
31,706
808
1872
196,406
39
1823
33,971
1
1873
198,900
226
1824
36,236
108
1874
201,394
11
1825
38,501
49
1875
203,888
61
1826
40,766
5
1876
206,382
42
1827
43,031
109
1877
208,876
1
1828
45,296
130
1878
211,371
4,056
1829
47,561
900
1879
213,865
19
1830
49,826
117
1880
216,359
2
1831
52,455
2
1881
218,500
0
1832
55,084
400
1882
220,705
4
1833
57,713
1,000
1883
223,150
1
1834
60,342
95
1884
226,019
1
1835
62,971
284
1885
228,856
1
1836
65,600
5
1886
231,725
0
1837
68,229
1,300
1887
234,160
0
1838
70,858
17
1888
236,578
0
1839
73,487
800
1889
239,123
1
1840
76,116
3
1890
242,039
0
1841
78,745
1,325
1891
247,180
0
1842
81,374
211
1892
252,027
0
1843
84,003
487
1893
258,533
0
1844
86,632
148
1894
264,149
0
1845
89,261
2
1895
275,000
0
1846
102,070
160
1896
280,039
0
1847
108,699
2,804
1897
285,156
298
1848
115,503
872
1898
290,020
57
1849
122,511
769
1899
294,826
23
. .
211
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
The first attempt to prevent the introduction of yellow fever by establishing quarantine was made in 1817. Although far from perfect, it was still a pledge of more efficient and scientific development. The first suggestion for quarantine re- striction was made by the first American Governor of Louisiana, W. C. C. Claiborne. Public opinion was distinctly unfavorable, however, and an Act of the Legislature in 1819 repealed the Act establishing a Board of Health, and invested the Governor with authority to establish quarantine at discretion by proclamation. Dr. Dupuy de Chambéry wrote a sketch of the yellow fever in 1819, and claimed that the fever was neither contagious or exportable. This was an opinion generally held by the medical faculty of that day, but Governor Villeré and his successor, Governor Rob- ertson, believing strongly in quarantine, urged the Legislature to pass laws for its enforcement. This was done in February, 1821, a Board of Health was created, with full powers to enforce a quarantine based upon the most rigid code, and pro- tected by heavy penalties. The quarantine station, established at English Turn, cost $22,000. The Board was composed of twelve members, with Mayor Joseph Roffignac as president ex-officio. These measures appeared to be effective, since no yellow fever appeared in 1821, but as the city was visited by terrible epidemics in 1822 and 1824, the quarantine laws were finally repealed in February, 1825.
Another Board of Health was established in June, 1841, consisting of nine members ; three aldermen, three physicians and three private citizens, with ample powers to adopt and enforce sanitary measures. In spite of their efforts, the fever raged that year, numbering its victims in the thousands. This Board of Health was dissolved in 1844, and the General Council invited the Medico-Chirurgical So- ciety to take charge of the sanitary interests of the city. A committee of nine members was appointed, and acts were passed from time to time, but the present system of quarantine was not established until 1855, after the terrible years of '53 and '54. An appropriation of $50,000 was made, and a quarantine station erected about seventy miles below the city, Dr. Sam'l Choppin holding the position of quar- antine physician. A State Board of Health was established and a thorough and systematic method of quarantine gradually evolved. In 1859 there were but ninety- two deaths, in marked contrast to the terrible mortality of 1858, when 4,855 individuals died of yellow fever. During the war the blockade of Gulf ports and the enforced cleanliness of the city saved the community from any visitation. In 1870, Dr. C. B. White, president of the Board of Health, introduced the disinfection of premises with diluted carbolic acid. Although the fever had already gained a foothold in the city, it did not spread, and Dr. White, in 1872, recommended the
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STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
use of the same disinfectant in cleansing ships and cargoes at quarantine station. In 1874 Dr. Alfred W. Perry designed and constructed a machine for pumping sulphuric acid gas into the holds of ships. The quarantine detention was relaxed by an Act of the Legislature in 1876, and vessels allowed to come to the city after a brief stay of a few hours at the station. The terrible year of 1878 followed and in May, 1879, Mr. William Van Slooten, chemist to the Board of Health, suggested the disinfection of ships by high temperature. It was impossible to carry this out, as the Board was not supplied with sufficient money, but it was decreed that vessels should be detained for twenty-one days, scraped, fumigated, drenched with carbolic acid, whitewashed and painted.
Dr. Joseph Jones, who assumed the duties of president of the Board of Health in April, 1880, devoted his remarkable scientific attainments to the preservation of the health of the community. He, too, constructed an improved machine for pumping sulphur fumes into the holds of ships. Dr. Joseph Holt was the real in- ventor of the present system of quarantine. In 1884 Dr. Holt substituted a solution of bichloride of mercury for the carbolic acid and obtained from the legislature an appropriation of $30,000 to put in operation his plan of maritime sanitation. In 1885 an apparatus was erected, consisting of a sulphur furnace, with a steam-pro- pelled fan attached, connected with a twelve-inch galvanized conductor leading to the hold of the vessel. Dr. Holt also built a heating chamber for the disinfection of clothing, bedding, etc. Dr. C. P. Wilkinson, president of the Board of Health in 1888, suggested some improvements in the heating chamber, and an entirely new plant was constructed in 1889. Dr. S. R. Olliphant, president of the Board of Health in 1890, still further improved the mechanism of this plant, perfecting the "Louisiana system of maritime sanitation." Its efficacy is in no way to be ques- tioned, because of the introduction of yellow fever in '97, the disease having origi- nated in Ocean Springs, Miss., and being brought into the city by the railroads.
The presidents of the State Board of Health, since its organization in 1855, have been Drs. Samuel Choppin, G. A. Nott, A. F. Axson, S. A. Smith, C. B. White, F. B. Gaudet, Samuel Choppin, Joseph Jones, Joseph Holt, C. P. Wilkinson, Samuel R. Olliphant and Edmond Souchon.
In May, 1898, an act was passed providing for the establishment of local par- ish and municipal Boards of Health. The State Board of Health consists of Dr. Edmond Souchon, president ; Dr. Hampden, S. Lewis and Dr. C. A. Gaudet, of New Orleans ; Dr. J. C. Egan, of Caddo; Dr. R. A. Randolph, of Rapides ; Dr. T. T. Tarleton, of St. Landry, and Dr. W. G. Owen, of Iberville. Dr. G. Farrar Patton
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STANDARD IIISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
is secretary. Drs. Lewis and Gaudet having resigned, have been succeeded by Dr. Arthur Nolte and Dr. P. B. Mccutcheon.
The Board of Health of the city of New Orleans consists of Dr. Quitman Kohnke, chairman and health officer; Dr. Paul Michinard, Dr. Alfred C. King and Messrs. Horace N. Beach and John Delery. Dr. Sydney L. Theard is secretary and sanitary officer. This board employs a chemist and a bacteriologist, and has the use of the fine laboratories of the medical department of Tulane University. Dr. Edmond Souchon is of the opinion that these two bodies, if properly supplied with funds, would save the city from further visitation of contagious disease in an epi- demic form.
Asiatic cholera has also played a very important part in the history of New Orleans. The first authentic record we have of its appearance in this city was in 1832. An epidemic of yellow fever already prevailed, when the horror of the situa- tion was deepened by the announcement that cholera had been reported, a case having been discovered on October 25. It spread with alarming rapidity, and out of a total of 8,090 deaths that year from all causes, 4,340 were ascribed to cholera. This was the darkest year in the history of New Orleans, the death rate reaching the enormous proportion of 147.10 per 1,000. The population at this time was 55,084, and more than one-seventh succumbed to disease. The following year, '33, was also marked by a cholera visitation ; this disease claimed 1,000 victims out of a total of 4,976 deaths. It reappeared in 1848, destroying 1,646 inhabitants. The city was infested with this malady for seven years ; in 1849 it raged in an alarming manner, carrying off 3,176 victims. This was its last virulent visitation. In 1850, '51, '52, '53 and '55 it was heroically combated by the medical profession, and many able treatises were written on the subject. The gradual disappearance of cholera has been, at least, one hopeful feature of the pathological history of the city.
Small-pox, also, committed great ravages among the early settlers of Louisiana and before the introduction of vaccination. Thirty-five years after the foundation of the colony, historians notice the prevalence and fatality of this disease. Vaccina- tion was introduced a little later than 1802, and since that time, up to 1861-1865, New Orleans has been almost exempt from destructive epidemics of small-pox. In 1849 the deaths from small-pox were 133; in 1857, 103; in 1858, 108. During the civil war the disease committed greater ravages, the deaths in 1864 being 605; in 1866, 613; and in 1870, 528; 1877 was the year in which small-pox reached its height, 1,099 deaths from it being reported. During the forty years extending from 1844 to 1883, there was a total of 7,070 deaths from this cause.
214
STANDARD HISTORY OF NEW ORLEANS.
We have reviewed the devastations caused in our community by various epi- demic diseases. The remainder of the chapter will be devoted to short sketches of some of those whose duty and ambition it was to foil the attacks of these terrible fces to human life. The earliest physicians who visited the struggling colony and ministered to the sick have left but few names to be gratefully remembered by pos- terity. In 1710 Dr. Jallot is mentioned; in 1722, Dr. Navarre, and the famous Dr. Masdevall, who practiced in 1796. These are the only three names on record in the eighteenth century. The early years of the nineteenth century are more prolific. Dr. Martin, Dr. Rollins, Dr. McConnell all left distinguished reputations, while Dr. Davidson and Dr. Kerr won distinction in the epidemics of 1817, 1819 and 1822.
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