USA > New Hampshire > Grafton County > Littleton > History of Littleton, New Hampshire, Vol. I > Part 10
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Order LIMICOLA. The Shore Birds.
FAMILY SCOLOPACIDA. THE SNIPES.
Philohela minor. Woodcock.
Gallinago delicata. Wilson's Snipe.
Tringa minutillü. Least Sandpiper.
.6 maculata. Pectoral Sandpiper.
Totanus melanoleucus. Greater Yellow-legs. 66 flavipes. Lesser Yellow-legs.
solitarius. Solitary Sandpiper. Bartramia longicauda. Upland Sandpiper or Plover.
Actitis macularia. Spotted Sandpiper ..
FAMILY CHARADRIDA. THE PLOVERS. Aegialitis semipalmata. Ringneck Plover.
Order GALLINA. The Gallinaceous Birds. FAMILY TETRAONIDÆE. THE GROUSE. Colinus virginianus. Bob-white.
Dendragapus canadensis. Spruce Partridge.
Bonasa umbellus. Ruffed Grouse.
Order COLUMBA. The Doves.
FAMILY COLUMBIDA. THE PIGEONS.
Ectopistes migratorius. Wild Pigeon. Fenaidura macroura. Turtle Dove.
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History of Littleton.
Order RAPTORES. The Birds of Prey.
FAMILY FALCONIDEE. THE FALCONS.
Circus hudsonius. Marsh Harrier.
Accipiter velox. Sharp-shinned Hawk.
cooperi. Cooper's Hawk.
66 atricapillus. Goshawk. Buteo borealis. Red-tailed Hawk.
latissimus. Broad-winged Hawk. lineatus. Red-shouldered Hawk.
Archibuteo lagopus. Rough-legged Hawk.
Aquila chrysaëtos. Golden Eagle. Halicetus leucocephalus. Bald Eagle. Falco peregrinus. Duck Hawk. columbarius. Pigeon Hawk.
66 sparverius. Sparrow Hawk.
Pandion haliaëtus. Fish Hawk.
FAMILY BUBONIDAE. THE OWLS.
Syrnium nebulosum. Barred Owl.
Nyctala acadica. Saw-whet Owl.
Megascops asio. Screech Owl.
Bubo virginianus. Great Horned Owl.
Nyctea nyctea. Snowy Owl. Surnia ulula. Hawk Owl.
Order COCCYGES. Cuckoos and their Allies.
FAMILY CUCULIDÆE. THE CUCKOOS.
Coccyzus americanus. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. erythrophthalmus. Black-billed Cuckoo.
FAMILY ALCEDINIDAE. THE KINGFISHERS. Ceryle alcyon. Belted Kingfisher.
Order PICI. The Woodpeckers.
FAMILY PICIDAE. THE WOODPECKERS.
Dryobates villosus. Hairy Woodpecker. pubescens. Downy Woodpecker. Picoides arcticus. Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker.
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The Birds of Littleton.
Ceophleus pileatus. Piliated Woodpecker. Melanerpes erythrocephalus. Red-headed Woodpecker. Sphyrapicus varius. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. Colaptes auratus. Yellow Hammer. Flicker.
Order MACROCHIRES. Swifts and their Allies.
FAMILY CAPRIMULGIDA. THE GOAT-SUCKERS.
Antrostomus vociferus. Whippoorwill. Chordeiles virginianus. Night Hawk.
FAMILY MICROPODIDA. THE SWIFTS. Chetura pelagica. Chimney Swift.
FAMILY TROCHILIDA. THE HUMMERS. Trochilus colubris. Ruby-throated Humming Bird.
Order PASSERES. The Passerine Birds.
FAMILY TYRANNIDAE. THE FLYCATCHERS.
Tyrannus tyrannus. King Bird.
Myiarchus crinitus. Great-crested Flycatcher. Sayornis phobe. Pewee.
Cantopus borealis. Olive-sided Flycatcher. virens. Wood Pewee.
Empidonax acadicus. Green-crested Flycatcher. pusillus trailli. Traill's Flycatcher. minimus. Least Flycatcher. flaventris. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.
FAMILY ALAUDIDÆ. THE LARKS.
Otocoris alpestris. Horned Lark.
FAMILY CORVIDA. CROWS AND JAYS.
Cyanocitta cristata. Blue Jay. Perisoreus canadensis. Canada Jay. Corvus americanus. Crow.
FAMILY ICTERIDE. ORIOLES AND BLACKBIRDS.
Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Bobolink. Molothrus ater. Cow Bird.
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History of Littleton.
Agelaius phoneceus. Red-winged Blackbird. Sturnella magna. Meadow Lark.
Icterus spurius. Orchard Oriole.
Icterus galbula. Baltimore Oriole.
Scolecophagus carolinus. Rusty Blackbird.
Quiscalus quiscula. Crow Blackbird.
FAMILY FRINGILLIDÆE. THE FINCHES.
Pinicola enucleator. Pine Grosbeak.
Carpodacus purpureus. Purple Finch.
Loxia leucoptera. White-winged Crossbill. curvirostra. Red Crossbill.
Acanthis linarius. Red-poll Linnet. Spinus tristis. Yellow Bird. Gold Finch.
pinus. Pine Siskin.
Plectrophenax nivalis. Snow Bunting.
Calcarius lapponicus. Lapland Longspur.
Poocetes gramineus. Vesper Sparrow. Ammodramus sandwichensis savanna. Savanna sparrow.
savannarum. Grasshopper Sparrow.
henslowi. Henslow's Sparrow.
Passer domesticus. English Sparrow.
Zonotrichia leucophrys. White-crowned Sparrow.
albicollis. White-throated Sparrow. Spizella monticola. Tree Sparrow.
socialis. Chipping Sparrow. pusilla. Field Sparrow. Junco hyemalis. Black Snow Bird.
Melospiza fasciata. Song Sparrow. georgiana. Swamp Sparrow.
Passerella iliaca. Fox Sparrow.
Pipilo erythrophthalmus. Chewink. Habia ludoviciana. Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
Passerina cyanea. Indigo Bird.
FAMILY TANAGRIDÆE. THE TANAGERS.
Pyranga rubra. Summer Red Bird.
erythromelas. Scarlet Tanager.
FAMILY HIRUNDINIDÆ. THE SWALLOWS.
Progne subis. Purple Martin.
Petrochelidon lunifrons. Eaves Swallow.
Chelidon erythrogaster. Barn Swallow. Tachycineta bicolor. White-bellied Swallow. Clivicola riparia. Bank Swallow.
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The Birds of Littleton.
FAMILY AMPELIDA. THE CHATTERERS. Ampelis cedrorum. Cherry Bird. FAMILY LANIIDA. THE SHRIKES. Lanius borealis. Great Northern Shrike. ludovicianus. Loggerhead Shrike.
FAMILY VIREONIDAE. THE VIREOS.
Vireo olivaceus. Red-eyed Vireo.
philadelphicus. Philadelphia Vireo.
gilrus. Warbling Vireo.
" flavifrons. Yellow-throated Vireo.
66 solitarius. Blue-headed Vireo.
noveboracensis. White-eyed Vireo.
FAMILY MNIOTILTIDA. THE WARBLERS.
Mniotilta varia. Black and White Creeping Warbler. Helminthophila chrysoptera. Golden-winged Warbler.
ruficapilla. Nashville Warbler.
Compsothlypis americana. Blue Yellow-backed Warbler. Dendroica cstiva. Yellow Warbler.
cærulescens. Black-throated Blue Warbler. coronata. Yellow-rumped Warbler.
maculosa. Black and Yellow Warbler.
pennsylvanica. Chestnut-sided Warbler.
castanea. Bay-breasted Warbler. striata. Black-poll Warbler. blackburnice. Orange-throated Warbler. virens. Black-throated Green Warbler.
66
vigorsi. Pine-creeping Warbler.
66 palmarum. Red-poll Warbler.
Seiurus aurocapillus. Oven Bird.
Geothlypis trichas. Maryland Yellow Throat.
Sylvania pusilla. Green Black-capped Warbler. canadensis. Canada Warbler.
Setophaga ruticilla. American Redstart.
FAMILY MOTACILLIDA. THE WAGTAILS. Anthus pennsylvanicus. Titlark.
FAMILY TROGLODYTIDA. THE WRENS AND MOCKING BIRDS. Galeoscoptes carolinensis. Cat Bird. Harporhynchus rufus. Brown Thrasher.
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History of Littleton.
Troglodytes aëdon. House Wren.
hiemalis. Winter Wren. Cistothorus stellaris. Short-billed Marsh Wren.
FAMILY CERTHIIDAE. THE CREEPERS.
Certhia familiaris. Brown Creeper.
FAMILY PARIDA. THE NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE.
Litta carolinensis. White-bellied Nuthatch.
canadensis. Red-bellied Nuthatch.
Parus atricapillus. Chickadee.
FAMILY SYLVIIDA. THE OLD WORLD WARBLERS.
Regulus satrapa. Golden-crowned Kinglet. calendula. Ruby-crowned Kinglet.
FAMILY TURDIDA. THE THRUSHES.
Turdus mustelinus. Wood Thrush.
fuscescens. Tawny Thrush.
ustulatus. Olive-backed Thrush.
66 aonalaschkæ pallasi. Hermit Thrush.
Merula migratoria. Robin. Sialia sialis. Blue Bird.
.
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Climate and Weather.
VI. CLIMATE AND WEATHER.
BY ROBERT DE COURCEY WARD, A. M.
B EFORE considering the climate of Littleton itself, it will be well to notice the general features of the climate and weather of New England, for it is only after an understanding of these larger facts that we can appreciate the local variations that Littleton presents.
For climatic purposes, the United States may be divided into three divisions : I. An Eastern Division, extending from the At- lantic Coast to the Plateau Region west of the Mississippi Valley ; II. The Western Plateau and Mountain Region west of Long. 100° W. ; and III. The Pacific Coast Region west of the Coast Ranges of mountains. We are here concerned with the first of these divisions only, and with but a small part of this, viz., the New England States. The climate of New England may be de- scribed in a word as continental, by which is meant that the changes from season to season are marked, or, in other words, that it has cold winters and hot summers. This is a distinguish- ing feature of the climate of the Atlantic coast of the United States, the proximity of the ocean and of the Gulf Stream having but a slight effect in tempering the severity of the winters or the heat of the summers. The reason for this is found in the fact that New England is situated on the leeward side of the continent, and therefore the prevailing winds, blowing from land to sea, carry the characteristic continental features of cold winters and hot summers over the New England States. The absence of any high mountain ranges extending north and south, which might act as a barrier to the winds, accentuates the continental character of the climate. During the winter months, as well as in the late autumn and early spring, the prevailing winds are northwest, and come from the cold snow-covered plains of the northwestern United States and Canada. In summer, on the other hand, the prevailing winds are from the southwest, and, coming from the warm South- ern States, not only bring with them the high temperatures of
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History of Littleton.
those inland districts, but also prevent, to a considerable extent, any great reduction of the summer temperature by cool breezes from the sea. In respect to its leeward position and continental climate, New England is much like the northeastern coast of Asia in the same latitudes, the position with reference to the continent, the proximity of the ocean, and of the warm and cold currents off- shore being the same in both cases. On the other hand, the coun- tries on the western side of the continent, as our Pacific coast and the western lands of Europe, have their prevailing winds from the ocean, and therefore do not experience such great seasonal changes of temperature. In summer, their winds come prevailingly from the northwest, bringing the cool air from the northern seas, and in winter, from the southwest, bringing the warm air from the oceans lying near the equator. The contrast between the temper- ature conditions of New England and those of similar latitudes in Western Europe is very striking, the ranges being much less in the latter case.
In addition to the one cause of our great changes of tempera- ture just mentioned, viz., the leeward position of New England with respect to the continent, there are other causes which are of prime importance. New England lies in a region which has the most rapid decrease of temperature poleward of any in the world. In the south is the Gulf of Mexico, with a higher temperature than that of any other body of water in the same latitude; at Lat. 50° N., over Canada, the temperature is lower than that of any land area in the same latitude except Eastern Siberia; off the coast, in close proximity, are the warm Gulf Stream and the cold waters of the Labrador current. Further, nowhere in the world is there a more frequent passage of cyclonic storms - better called cyclones, although they are usually spoken of simply as storms - than over the northeastern part of the United States, and nowhere do they move more rapidly than here. As almost every one of these storm areas - of which there are on an average about two a week - affects the weather of some part or all of New England, our changes of wind, weather, and temperature in this region must be both frequent and rapid. This changeableness is the marked feature of New England climate. Settled weather is practically unknown.
A few words of explanation may be necessary here in regard to these cyclonic storms, or, as they are technically called, cyclones. These are areas of low pressure which move in a general easterly or northeasterly direction across our country. Most of them come from the northwestern parts of the United States, or from Canada,
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Climate and Weather.
and move across the Great Lakes and down the St. Lawrence Valley. Others come from the Southern States, or Gulf of Mex- ico, and move- over the Eastern Central States up to the Lakes, and then down the St. Lawrence Valley, or up the Atlantic coast, and then towards the northeast over the ocean. A third path fol- lowed by cyclones which come to us from the West Indies, and commonly known as West Indian hurricanes, is close along the coast, and then off to sea, either south of or over New Eng- land. It will be seen from this description that New England is situated in a region towards which these cyclonic tracks converge. Cyclones have inflowing winds, systematically spiralling towards the centre of low pressure in a direction contrary to that in which the hands of a watch or clock move, and with a velocity increasing towards this centre. They are commonly associated with cloudy and rainy, or, if in winter, snowy weather. In winter, they are more frequent and more violent than in summer, and move more rapidly. Their average velocity for the year is 28.4 miles an hour. It is on the passage of such areas of low pressure, and of the accompanying areas of high pressure, or anticyclones, that our weather changes depend. The anticyclones, or areas of high pres- sure, are in many respects the opposite of the cyclones. They have outflowing winds, spiralling away from the centre in the same direction as that in which the hands of a watch move, and they are associated with fair weather. Their paths are more erratic than those of the cyclones, and their velocity is not so uniform. It should be noted that, owing to the contra-clockwise circulation of the winds around a cyclone, such an area has south- erly or southeasterly winds on its front, and westerly or north- westerly winds on its rear. This is an important point to bear in mind in considering our weather changes.
The New England winter, lasting generally from November well into March, is severe. Temperatures of -20° or -30° are not uncommon, especially at the more northern stations, and readings of -40°, or even lower, are occasionally noted. On the other hand, the occurrence of warm southerly winds during the winter often sends the temperature up to 50° or 60°, so that ranges for the whole of New England during the winter months are often 80° to 100°. Snow usually falls in November, and, especially in the interior of the northern districts, often in October, and more rarely in September. On the mountains of New Hampshire it not infrequently falls in midsummer. It remains on the ground till April, - more often, however, in northern districts than in south- ern. In one or two isolated, well-sheltered spots in the White
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History of Littleton.
Mountains snow often remains till July or August. April com- monly brings a few light snow-storms. The depth of snow in midwinter may exceed two or three feet.
In April and May the effect of the northward advance of the sun is clearly seen in the rapid rise of temperature on clear days, many of which have distinctly summer characteristics, but the occurrence of cold northwest winds brings back wintry conditions from time to time. April is further distinguished by the increasing numbers of its cumulus clouds, and May by the increase in number of thunder-storms, - both of these phenomena being characteristic of summer.
New England summer weather may be called hot. It is marked by no such violent or frequent changes as those which character-, ize the winter. It lasts from June through September, and even into October, although late in September and in October the peri- ods of mild weather are often broken by cold rain-storms. The summer has fewer general rains than the winter, but in their place thunder-storms are of frequent occurrence.
The mean annual temperature of New England ranges from about 50° on the southern coast to about 40° in the northern parts. Temperatures of - 20° and - 30°, or more, are not uncommon in winter at northern stations, and in the summer months maximum temperatures of 95° to 100° are reported. The mean for the winter ranges from about 15° in the north to 30° in the south, and for the summer from 60° to 70°. The effect of the topog- raphy of New England is most marked when we examine the distribution of temperature for the year. A glance at any mean annual temperature chart of this region will show that the iso- therms, or lines of equal temperature, bend northward up the Connecticut Valley, while they bend southward on either side of the valley. This makes a curious series of loops, and shows that the mean annual temperature of many stations along the valley is higher than that of other stations on the same latitude east and west of the valley. In winter, this valley, reaching down to Long Island Sound, affords a free passage to the warm southerly winds from the ocean far up into New Hampshire. It also, on the other hand, furnishes an easy course to the southward for the cold northerly winds. In general, however, the topographic features of New England are not sufficiently marked to affect the climate to any great extent. The higher mountain tops, such as Mount Washington, naturally show, more or less distinctly, the character- istic variations of temperature, pressure, wind velocity and direc- tion, that distinguish mountain stations ; but the elevations are not
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Climate and Weather.
sufficiently high to cause very decided differences in precipitation, or in general climatic conditions, on the windward and leeward slopes. The stations among the mountains in parts of New Hampshire and Vermont have a more or less characteristic moun- tain climate. Being considerably above sea level, their summer temperatures are usually lower than those of stations at less altitudes, and their precipitation and winds are to some extent influenced by their situation with respect to the mountains. As the temperature of the air decreases about 1º for every 300 feet of ascent, the higher mountains show variations in their flora depend- ing on this change of climate with height above sea level. Other minor climatic features which may be noted as characteristic of the New England mountain region, besides those already men- tioned, are the occurrence of local mountain and valley winds, and the marked inversions of temperature which usually occur during calm, clear nights, and give distinctly lower temperatures in the valley bottoms than on the mountain sides and tops.
The precipitation of New England is remarkably evenly dis- tributed through the year. There is a slight maximum in summer, the principal part of the summer rainfall coming in thunder-storms. The amount of precipitation varies between 40 and 50 inches a year over most of the district, the greatest amounts being found along the southern and eastern coasts, and the least - between 30 and 40 inches - in Vermont. The variation of rainfall by seasons averages only .05 inch in Massachusetts ; . 13 inch in Connecticut ; .16 inch in Rhode Island ; . 17 inch in Maine, and .24 inch in New Hampshire. The New England States, as a whole, have the least seasonal variation of rainfall of any part of the United States. The total precipitation varies largely in different years, however, and is not infrequently 20 or 30 per cent greater or less than the mean. January has the greatest probability of rain, and the summer months the least. January, February, and March are the months of heaviest snowfall, the amount averaging about 20 inches in each of these months in the northern parts, and 10 in the southern. In November, the average snowfall in northern districts is 10 inches ; in December, 15 inches, while in southern sections, it is about 5 inches in each month. In October and May, snowfalls average less than 1 inch. In the northern interior, sleighing generally lasts three months, more or less, but in south- ern sections the snow is often melted by the warm southerly winds, which not infrequently bring rain. Hail occurs in connection with thunder-storms in the summer months. December has the highest percentage of mean cloudiness ; June and August, the least.
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History of Littleton.
In December, the percentages are over 70 in northern Vermont and New Hampshire, 60-70 in southern Vermont and New Hamp- shire, western Connecticut, and Massachusetts, and 50-60 over the rest of the district. In June and August, the percentage is between 40 and 50 for the whole region. The percentage of mean cloudiness is higher in the northern parts of Vermont, New Hamp- shire, and Maine than in southern or coast sections. The winter months, as a whole, are the cloudy ones. The cloudiness increases rapidly in October, but decreases gradually from the winter maxi- mum to the summer minimum.
The prevailing winds, as already stated, are northwest during the winter, and southwest during the summer. They are, how- ever, very frequently interrupted by easterly winds, caused by the passage of cyclonic depressions. When a depression moves north of New England, it will cause easterly and southeasterly winds on front, veering through the south to the southwest, west, and northwest, as the centre moves off to the northeast. When a depression moves south of New England, the wind begins in the northeast, and backs through the north to the northwest. During the summer, on clear, calm days, the sea-breeze blows along the shore for a distance of some ten or twenty miles inland.
The average date of the first killing frost for the whole of New England is between September 15 and October 1, and of the last, between April 15 and May 1; but frosts may occur in any month, and are not uncommon in midsummer at northern stations.
In some regions, many of those in the Torrid Zone, for example, the daily weather changes are so regular and uniform, and the variations from season to season so slight and gradual, that an account of the climate of such countries gives a very good idea of their weather as well. In the case of regions like New England, however, where the non-periodic variations of weather, depending on the passage of cyclonic and anticyclonic areas, are so common, especially in winter, when the cyclones are the most frequent, a brief account of the climate, such as that just given, serves to present but a very imperfect idea of what our climate really is. It is necessary, therefore, that we should also consider some of the typical weather changes that are experienced liere, for it is these that go to make up the average conditions of temperature, precipitation, etc., that we call climate.
A bright, clear, deep blue sky ; the ground covered with a recent fall of snow, which sparkles and glistens in the sunlight ; the air cold and crisp, but not chilling, - such is a typical New England " fine " winter day. During the later morning or the noon hours
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Climate and Weather.
of such a bright, clear spell, the sun may, under favorable condi- tions, raise the temperature close to the ground near to, or even above, the melting-point ; but as the long night comes on the calm, clear air and the cloudless sky give the most favorable opportunity for active radiation, and the lower strata near the ground may have temperatures far below zero. It is under such conditions as these, occurring when high pressures prevail over New England, that our lowest winter temperatures are recorded, records of - 20° to -40° being made quite frequently, especially at the more northern stations. It is interesting to note that the minima registered at valley stations under these conditions are almost always consider- ably lower than the nocturnal minima on the hills near by. The minimum temperature registered on Mount Washington on a clear, calm winter night has been found to be more than 40° higher than that of adjacent valley stations, and differences of 20° are common.
Our spells of clear, cold weather usually last two, or perhaps three, days. The first day is apt to be the coldest. On the sec- ond, the noon temperatures are higher, and the night temperatures not so low. The high pressure area to which the fair weather conditions are due moves away to the eastward, and the approach of a cyclonic area from the west down the St. Lawrence Valley brings with it a change. The wind shifts to the southeast, and the temperature begins to rise, often continuing to do so through a whole day, or a day and a night. Before or soon after the begin- ning of the southerly wind, there comes a change in the other weather conditions. A veil of whitish clouds, often curiously matted and crossed, or in wisps and streamers, is seen gradually rising in the west or southwest, and extending over the sky. As this veil comes between us and the sun or moon, it gives them that pale watery appearance which is commonly regarded as a sign of a coming storm. Soon heavy banks of clouds follow, the sky becomes overcast, and snow or rain begins to fall. As the storm centre comes nearer, the wind increases in force. These southerly winds in front of our winter cyclonic storms are often extremely warm, and may cause a rise of temperature up to 50° or 60°, even at midnight in midwinter, when we should normally have our lowest temperatures. If such be the case, the snow with which the storm began soon changes to rain, and we have those extremely uncomfortable conditions of high temperatures and close, muggy atmosphere which are a very characteristic feature of our New England winter, especially over the southern sections. During the continuance of these conditions, which may last twenty-four
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