USA > New Hampshire > Grafton County > Littleton > History of Littleton, New Hampshire, Vol. I > Part 11
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112
History of Littleton.
hours or longer, the snow left on the ground in the preceding snow-storm is rapidly melted. The ground runs with streams of water, partly rain and partly melted snow, and disastrous freshets are not uncommon, when the rainfall is especially heavy. The warm, moist wind, blowing over the snow-covered ground, is cooled below its dew-point, becomes foggy, and clouds of fog drift along near the ground, often becoming very dense. In the more north- ern districts, the southerly winds are usually not so warm as they are in Connecticut and Massachusetts, and snow is more apt to continue during the whole of the storm.
As the cyclone which gives us the spell of stormy weather just described, moves on in its eastward course down the St. Lawrence Valley and out to sea, the wind veers around from south to south- west and northwest, the snow or rain ceases, the clouds break away in the west and drift rapidly eastward, and our typical win- ter " clearing-off " follows, with a clear sky, a dry northwest wind, and the low temperatures characteristic of a cold wave. The melted snow and water on the ground, if rain has just been fall- ing, soon freeze into a hard icy covering, and we come back again to a spell of clear, cold weather. The cold, dry north west wind of the cold wave is strongly contrasted with the warm, moist southerly wind of the preceding cyclone, and instead of the feeling of irritability and general discomfort which is common while the southerly " sirocco " blows, the northwest wind gives us a certain feeling of exhilaration. If the pressure is especially high over the north western States, the temperatures in that area very low, and the retreating cyclonic area one of considerable energy, the condi- tions are favorable for a severe cold wave. A large section of the United States is then swept over by a great flow of northwest winds, which bring with them the low temperatures produced over the northwestern interior plains, where long nights, a clear sky, and a snow-covered surface furnish the best possible conditions for radiation. As these winds reach New England, they cause a fall of temperature amounting to 30°, 40°, or even 50° in twenty-four hours, and this fall takes place entirely independently of any change in temperature that may be caused by the diurnal warming through the direct effect of the sun's heat by day, or the cooling when the sun does not shine, at night. The cold due to the advance of a cold wave is felt about equally at all stations, there being but slight local variations, and in this respect it is contrasted with that caused by local radiation on calm, clear nights, for in the latter case, as has been seen, the valley temperatures are lower than those of higher land. The violence and duration of the cold
113
Climate and Weather.
wave, and the suddenness of the changes in temperature it causes, depend principally on the positions of the centres of low and high pressure, the amount of the pressures, and the temperatures of the areas. We may, therefore, have all grades, from a slow change of wind from south to west and then northwest, and a slow and moderate fall of temperature, to a very sudden change of wind and a very rapid fall of 40° or more in a few hours. The cold wave is the emphatic winter weather characteristic in New England. It comes on the rear of a departing snow or rain storm, and brings with it the succeeding spell of fine weather, such as that we described first.
Although most of our winter precipitation, either snow or rain, comes with southerly winds, in the manner just noted, when a cyclonic centre passes south of New England, we usually have a northeast snow-storm. In this case, the wind is chilly and pene- trating, coming off the cold Labrador current, and has a very different feeling from that of the southerly wind in the case of a cyclonic centre passing north of New England. Our northeast snow-storms are apt to be violent affairs, especially if the pressure at the storm centre is low, and this centre moves slowly. Such was the case in the famous " March Blizzard " of 1888, when the centre came up the southern coast and was nearly stationary south of New England for some time. Connecticut, which was very near the centre, had a snowfall which averaged 30 inches in depth. These conditions give what is usually known as a "good old- fashioned New England snow-storm."
There are two interesting features which occur from time to time in connection with our winter storms. The first is the so- called " ice-storm." This is associated with a cold rain or sleet which, falling onto trees, telegraph wires, or other objects, freezes on them and forms a hard icy covering, it may be half an inch or more in thickness. If the precipitation continues for some time, the increasing weight of the icy coating may cause the branches of the trees to break off, and it is not an uncommon sight in winter, after one of these ice-storms, especially when there has been a brisk wind, to find the ground under the trees covered with broken branches and twigs. The cause of the icy formation is probably this : The rain or sleet comes from a warm stratum of air at some height above the earth's surface, and, on nearing the ground, falls through a colder stratum, so that, on coming in contact with any objects, such as trees, which are in this cold layer of air, it freezes at once. The second feature, which is even a more beautiful one, is sometimes produced in winter by a fall of damp snow, unaccom-
VOL. 1 .- 8
114
History of Littleton.
panied by violent winds. The snow, by reason of its dampness, clings to the branches and twigs of trees, fences, etc., producing an effect of singular beauty under the bright sunshine of the succeed- ing fair day. Every branch, every twig, has its thick, white covering, which, until the warmth of the morning and noon hours melts it off, lends to the landscape an appearance whose charm it is difficult to overrate.
As March approaches, the wintry conditions begin to relax a little. This month is generally known as windy, blustering, and disagreeable. It often has severe snow-storms, such as the " March Blizzard," and its cold waves are often fully as severe as those of midwinter. April brings us many summer weather types. The greater length of the days, and the decrease in the number of cyclonic storms and their attendant clouds, gives an opportunity to warm up the ground and the lower air during the daytime. Bright, calm April days are, therefore, distinguished by a well- marked rise of temperature during the morning hours, reaching a maximum about two o'clock, and then falling towards evening and through the night. This daily course of temperature, depending on the sun, is a marked feature of our summer weather, and is strongly contrasted with our winter temperature changes, which depend principally on the passage of areas of high and low pressure, and come independently of the time of day. April is further distinguished by the increasing numbers of cumulus clouds by day, these clouds, with their flat bases and convex tops, being a sign that there are ascending currents of warmed air beneath them, and by the occurrence of frequent short showers of rain, -the so- called " April showers," - many of which are really embryo thun- der-storms, but lack the necessary high temperatures to develop them into full-fledged examples of such storms. During April, the cold waves become much less severe, being warmed in their passage to New England by contact with the warm ground over which they come. Cold rain-storms, with chilling northeasterly winds, remind us that winter has not long passed. May brings with it the summer characteristics of weather in more pronounced manner : the more marked diurnal temperature range ; the higher tempera- tures reached on clear, cahn days ; the occurrence of thunder- storms with increasing frequency ; the beginnings of the sea-breeze along the shore.
In June, the summer has begun. The prevailing winds are southwest at this season, and, coming from the warm Southern States, are apt to be dry and oppressive. During spells of two or three or more days of clear weather, such as are very common in
115
Climate and Weather.
summer, the daily warming by the sun may carry the early after- noon temperatures up to 95° or more. These spells are usually associated with a considerable cooling under the clear sky at night, and under these conditions fogs are common along the valley bottoms. These fogs soon " burn off" in the morning hours. Such conditions as those which distinguish these periods of clear, tolerably calm weather are the most favorable for the occurrence of the sea-breeze, which is one of the characteristic features of summer along the coast, especially in July and August. The breeze begins at the coast about 10 or 11 in the morning, and extends inland, reaching a distance of 15 or 20 miles from the shore in the middle of the afternoon. Its velocity is about 15 miles an hour near the shore, and less further inland. It brings an agreeable cool temperature, and a smell of the sea, which is very refreshing on a hot, sultry day. The district from Boston to Cape Ann, Massachusetts, is the region where the sea-breeze is best developed, but it is felt all along the shore when the conditions are favorable. Further characteristics of our clear, hot spells of sum- mer weather are the increase in wind velocity towards noon, fol- lowed by a decrease towards evening, and the growth of cumulus clouds. This last has already been referred to as a summer feature. About 10 o'clock in the morning of one of our fine summer days, small patches and flocks of cloud may be seen rising in the west. As the clouds rise and drift eastward across the sky, they are seen to have the flat bases and bulging tops which distinguish cumulus clouds, and have given them their name. Towards noon, these clouds increase in size and in num- ber; their tops often attain a height of two or three miles, and the sky may be largely obscured by them. In the late afternoon, however, they are seen to diminish in size, dissolve, and settle down towards the earthi. When evening comes, the sky is nearly or quite clear again. If the development of the cumulus clouds progresses far enough, a thunder-storm may follow.
Such a spell as that just described may last several days, the temperature increasing from day to day, but the general features varying little. The approach of a cyclonic area from the west brings with it a change. With the southerly wind which now prevails, the temperatures rise still higher, and the moist, hot air, with the additional warming by the sun, brings us most dis- agreeable and oppressive conditions. The sky soon becomes liazy, being covered with a cirrus cloud veil, and if the storm be one of sufficient energy, and the centre be near enough to us, heavy clouds and rain will follow. As the centre moves away, the cooler, clear-
116
History of Littleton.
ing conditions of the rear of the disturbance, already familiar from our winter weather types, come on. If, however, a general rain does not fall, thunder-storms usually occur in its place. As thun- der-storms are one of the most characteristic and important sum- mer phenomena, a short account of them will be useful here.
Thunder-storms occur chiefly in the hotter spells of our summer weather, while southerly or southwesterly winds are blowing, and when the atmosphere is close, muggy, and, as we say, " thundery." The first sign of the approach of a thunder-storm is the growth of heavy cumulus clouds in the west, which gradually rise and pre- sent the well-known appearance of thunder-heads. As the cloud- mass increases in extent, gradually covering the western sky, it grows darker and more forbidding ; distant thunder is soon heard, and flashes of lightning seen. In front of and above the main body of the heavy thunder-clouds extends a whitish veil or sheet of cloud, which moves eastward and rapidly shuts off the blue sky above. Just before the storm begins, a brisk gust of wind is felt, from northwest, west, or southwest, coming from the front of the advancing storm. This " squall-wind," as it is called, is noticeable from the fact that it raises clouds of dust, and bangs doors and blinds. The rain comes very soon after the squall- wind, usually in a few drops at first, and then increasing to a heavy downpour. At the same time, the temperature falls rapidly several degrees, and as the storm moves off to the eastward, after a rainfall of fifteen or twenty minutes or longer, the sky quickly clears, with a westerly or northwesterly wind, a temperature of 10°, 15°, or even 20° lower than that which prevailed previously, and a fresh, bracing air. Thunder-storms occur under several con- ditions. Some of them come in a general rain-storm, are not fol- lowed by the usual rapid clearing off, and amount to little more than a temporary increase in the general rainfall, accompanied by thunder and lightning. Most of them, however, occur during gen- eral fair weather conditions, and are followed by clear and cooler weather. The most marked ones occur in the southeastern quar- ter of a cyclone which is passing north of New England, when the temperature is especially high. They may be local disturbances, lasting only half an hour, and moving but a few miles, their whole development and dissolution being visible from one point of obser- vation. Or they may extend over a district of 300 or 400 miles in length, over all of which area it will be raining at one time, and may move 1000 miles or more before being dissipated. Most of New England's thunder-storms come to it ready-made, so to speak, from New York State or further west, and cross our district
117
Climate and Weather.
in a systematic manner from west to east. They occur chiefly in June, July, and August, and between 3 and 6 P. M. The average velocity of their movement is 30 miles an hour, sometimes reach- 60 miles, and at others only 15 miles an hour. Distinct moving thunder-storms occur somewhere in New England about once in three days in the summer months. They are more frequent in southern than in northern sections, but do not seem to show any preference for any special paths. Most of our summer rainfall comes from thunder-storms, and these not infrequently bring so heavy a rainfall that considerable damage is done to crops. The squall-wind also frequently blows down trees, etc., and damage by lightning strokes is often unpleasantly common. Hail, which often falls in summer thunder-storms, also does damage to crops, fruit- trees, glass, etc. In winter, thunder-storms are rare, but when they do occur, they almost always come at night, during warm southerly winds, and near the sea-coast. The violent whirling storms known as tornadoes, which are most common west of the Mississippi River, and are really very highly developed thunder-storms, are fortunately very rare in New England. Those that are on record as having occurred have mostly been noted in the Con- necticut Valley. The last tornado which we have had in our district was the Lawrence, Massachusetts, tornado of July 26, 1890. This resulted in the death of 8 persons, the injury of 63, the destruction or damage of about 35 houses, and an estimated loss of $60,000.
Our summer weather may now be briefly summarized as a suc- cession of hot, fair spells, interrupted by spelis of cooler, fair weather with northwesterly winds, or by cloudy and rainy weather with northeasterly or southeasterly winds. Thunder-storms usu- ally occur towards the close of the hot spells.
As autumn comes on, the number of cyclones, and consequently the number of rainy spells, increases, while the daily warming by the sun becomes less marked. During August, September, and October, but especially in September, the season of West Indian hurricanes is at its height, and several of these storms usually pass up along the Atlantic coast, and near New England, giving us violent northeast gales and heavy rains. Between the periods of cool, rainy weather, there are many spells of warm or even hot, dry weather, which savors of summer, and in October we have that beautiful period of a few days of calm, dry weather known as the "Indian Summer," when gentle southerly winds prevail, and when the atmosphere has a soft, hazy appearance from the smoke of many forest fires. In New England, this short
118
History of Littleton.
season is one of the most beautiful of the year, for then the calm beauty of the landscape, especially in the mountains, is increased a thousandfold by the wonderful coloring of the autumn foliage; but as autumn nears its end the warm spells grow less frequent, the storms become more severe, the rain is replaced by snow, the cold waves are more frequent and more marked, and we gradu- ally pass into winter again.
We have now given a short account of the climate and of the typical weather changes of New England. These being types, it must not be expected that all our varying changes of weather will be exactly like the ones we have described. According to the paths and velocities of the cyclones, of their severity or their moderate development, of the general conditions of temperature and pressure, and of many other factors, our weather changes will vary from these types.
Littleton township lies between the Connecticut and Ammo- noosuc rivers, in northern New Hampshire, adjoining the Vermont line on the west. It stretches for about 15 miles along the Con- necticut River. The village of Littleton is situated on the Ammo- noosuc, about 20 miles above its junction with the Connecticut. The Ammonoosuc valley is about half a mile wide on the sec- ond terrace at the village, widening out as it nears the Connec- ticut and narrowing towards its head, in the mountains. The length of the valley, from its head at the base of the White Moun- tains to its western limit at the Connecticut, is about 50 miles. Its general trend is from east to west between the mountains and Littleton village, and from northeast to southwest from that village to the Connecticut. Its surface is undulating, and it is enclosed by hills averaging 1000 feet above the valley bottom at Littleton.
Meteorological records have been kept at Littleton during a considerable length of time. Mr. Charles Nurse, who is at pres- ent the official town observer, began the keeping of a temperature record as far back as 1852, taking three readings a day, at 6 A. M., 1 and 9 P. M. He also made notes as to weather, rain, snow, etc. In 1869 he began to keep the amount of precipitation. Mr. Nurse then lived on Union Street, half a mile above the village, and near the level of the river. In 1881 he moved onto High Street, about 130 feet above the river, and in 1882 to his present situation on Oak Hill, about 230 feet above the river. In 1890 Mr. Nurse was officially appointed town observer for Littleton, this being the first appointment of the kind ever made in New Hampshire, and one of the very few ever made in New England. The records kept
119
Climate and Weather.
by Mr. Nurse, as town observer, during the period 1891-1894, which are based on standard instruments, made in accordance with the instructions of the United States Weather Bureau and regularly furnished to that Bureau, are the ones used in the pres- ent account of the climate of Littleton. The previous observations, made at different hours, with more or less unreliable instruments, and with poor exposures, are here disregarded. Mr. Robert C. Whiting kept a full record for the Smithsonian Institution for a time, in 1863.
The present situation of the observing station, and of the instruments, is as follows : The latitude is 44º 19' N., the longi- tude 71° 46' W., and the elevation 1032 feet above sea level. In front of Mr. Nurse's house the ground slopes rapidly to the village. The exposure is good on all sides except the northeast, where Pine Grove Hill rises 75 feet higher, its top, covered with pines, being about 200 yards away. The thermometers are standard Green instruments, - ordinary, wet and dry bulb, and maximum and minimum, - they are in a standard shelter on the north side of the house. The shelter is built against the kitchen window, which is a double one and does not open. The bottom of the shelter is 32 feet above the ground, and the instruments are 4 feet above the ground, which is grass covered. To the east of the shelter, some 10 feet or more distant, are a barn and shed, the ridge of the barn being about 25 feet high. The ground rises behind the house, the next building being considerably higher, and about 100 feet dis- tant. The rain-gauge is north of the house, about 35 feet away from house and barn, and 15 feet away from a fence 5 feet high. The gauge is home-made, measures 61 inches inches in diameter, is set on a stake 4 feet above the ground, and is about 4 feet higher than the thermometers. The anemometer is a standard Weather Bureau instrument, well exposed on top of the barn, 45 feet above the ground.
TEMPERATURE.
The following tables, I .- IV., compiled, with a few additions, from the Monthly Bulletins of the New England Weather Ser- vice, give the usual temperature data for Littleton during the four years 1891-1894. In explanation of the several column headings, it may be stated that the mean maximum temperature for a month is obtained by adding together the maximum temperatures recorded each day, and then dividing their sum by the number of days in the month. In the case of the mean minimum, the temper- atures used are the lowest recorded each day. The mean range
120
History of Littleton.
is the difference between the mean maximum and mean minimum. The fourth column gives the highest reading noted during each
TABLE I. TEMPERATURES AT LITTLETON, N. H., DURING THE YEAR 1891.
Month.
Mean Max.
Mean Min.
Mean Range. 1
Max.
Date.
Min.
Date.
From Max. and Min.
From Tri-daily Observations.
January
0
9.0
18.1
o 48
22
-14
1
18.0
19.2
February
32.5
9.8
22 6
50
25
-17
5
21.2
21.3
March
38.3
15.7
22.6
55
22
-16
2
27.0
April
52.8
30.2
22.6
77
22
21
1
41.5
41.2
May
63.7
38.9
24.6
83
10
27
19
51.3
49.5
June
74.6
49.4
25.2
89
15, 16
31
5
62.0
60.5
July
75.7
52.2
23.5
89
13. 14
39
28
64.0
62.2
August
75.1
53.4
21.
89
11
41
20
64.2
63.6
September
71.2
48.6
22.6
83
18
33
9
59.9
58.9
October
:
·
23.3
20.8
63
17
-9
30
33.7
32.2
December
37.4
21.5
15.9
54
4
-5
17
29.4
29.0
month ; the fifth, the date on which this occurred; the sixth gives the lowest reading of the month ; and the seventh, the date of that reading. The eighth and ninth columns give the mean or
TABLE II. TEMPERATURES AT LITTLETON, N. H., DURING THE YEAR 1892.
Month.
Mean Max.
Mean Min.
Mean Range.
Max.
Date.
Min.
Date.
From Max. and Min.
From Tri-daily Observations.
January
29.3
0 21.6
54
14
-95
20
18.0
19.5
February
28.0
9.1
18.9
43
26
-16
17
18.6
19.9
March
31.1
15.0
16.1
47
31
-5
16, 17
23.5
23.2
April
49.9
29.0
20.9
64
21
15
25
39.4
May
June
78.7
52.3
26.4
89
25
37
5
65.5
64.6
August
72.7
53 7
19.0
85
10, 18
41
29
63.2
63.2
September
67.1
42.9
24.2
76
5
30
30
55.0
54.3
October
52.8
34.7
18.1
67
68
14, 15 18
13
24
34.4
34.0
December
24.2
10 9
13.3
39
9
-14
26
17.6
18.2
.
.
88
1
36
11
July
November
41.3
27.4
13.9
80
4
15
29
42.4
November
44.1
24
12
43.8
42.8
.
81
31
30
10
Mean.
0
average temperature of the month. In the eighth column (for 1891-1892 and part of 1893), this mean is obtained from the mean
·
Mean.
121
Climate and Weather.
maximum and minimum readings, by adding these together and dividing by two. In the ninth column, the mean is obtained by
TABLE III. TEMPERATURES AT LITTLETON, N. H., DURING THE YEAR 1893.
Month.
Mean Max.
Mean Min.
Mean Range.
Max.
Date.
Min.
Date.
From Max. and Min.
From Tri-daily Observations.
January
15.7
-2.0
17.7
48
2
-18
12
6.8
·
February
23.3
3.0
20.3
45
10
-22
5
13.1
14.3
March
34.2
13.5
20.7
48
14
-13
19
23.8
24.3
April
44.4
25.9
19.2
60
28
9
3
34.8
35.3
May
65.2
39.2
26.0
89
23
27
8
52.2
52.1
June
78.4
52.0
26.4
91
21
41
8,29
65.2
64.0
July
77.2
49.5
27.7
88
8
39
25
63.4
62.6
August
75.1
53.4
21.7
89
10, 11
36
14
64.2
62.7
September
62.2
39.8
22.4
76
14
29
27
51.0
October
58.9
36.1
22.8
73
12, 13
15
31
47.5
November
31.9
December
16.0
·
.
adding together the temperatures observed at 7 A. M., 2 P. M., and 9 P. M., the 9 P. M. reading being added in twice, and then divid- ing the sum by 44 (7 A.M.+2 P. M.+9 P. M.+9 P. M.). It will be
TABLE IV. TEMPERATURES AT LITTLETON, N. H., DURING THE YEAR 1894.
Month.
Mean Max.
Mean Min.
Mean Range.
Max.
Date.
Min.
Date.
Mean, from Max. and Min.
January
27.6
6.7
20.9
48
24
13
19.2
February
24.3
0.7
23.6
45
19
-29
25
12.5
March
42.2
23.6
18.5
61
19
4
28
32.9
April
58.3
31.7
16.6
74
20
11
3
45.0
May
67.2
42.8
24.4
81
1
25
15.
55.0
June
77.0
51.2
25.8
89
16
31
7
64.1
July
78.6
54.3
24.3
91
20
42
10
66.4
August
72.4
48.0
24.3
84
25
32
27
60.2
September
59.7
46.9
22.8
81
4
27
26
53.3
October
57.3
38.0
19.3
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