USA > California > The history of Oregon and California & the other territories of the northwest coast of North America > Part 2
USA > Oregon > The history of Oregon and California & the other territories of the northwest coast of North America > Part 2
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331-355 Mountains, by the British and the Americans.
CHAPTER XVII.
1823 TO 1843.
Few Citizens of the United States in the Countries west of the Rocky Moun- tains between 1813 and 1823 - Trading Expeditions of Ashley, Sublette, Smith, Pilcher, Pattie, Bonneville, and Wyeth - Missionaries from the United States form Establishments on the Columbia - First Printing Press set up in Oregon - Opposition of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Americans ; how exerted - Controversy between the United States and Russia - Dispute between the Hudson's Bay and the Russian American Companies ; how terminated - California ; Capture of Monterey by Com- modore Jones - The Sandwich Islands ; Proceedings of the Missionaries ; Expulsion of the Catholic Priests, and their Reinstatement by a French Force - The Sandwich Islands temporarily occupied by the British. 356-374
CHAPTER XVIII.
1842 To 1844.
Excitement in the United States respecting Oregon - Treaty of Washington determining Boundaries between the Territories of Great Britain and those of the United States, east of the Lake of the Woods - Mr. Linn's Bill in the Senate of the United States, for the immediate occupation of Ore- gon - Reflections on the Convention of 1827-Present State of the Hud- son's Bay Company's Territories - Conclusion. 375-403
PROOFS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
405-471
GENERAL INDEX . . 473
GEOGRAPHY
OF THE
WESTERN SECTION OF NORTH AMERICA.
1
GEOGRAPHY
OF
THE WESTERN SECTION OF NORTH AMERICA.
GENERAL VIEW.
NORTH AMERICA borders upon three great divisions of the ocean : the Atlantic on the east-the Arctic on the north - and the Pacific on the south and west - each of which receives, either directly or through its gulfs and bays, the superfluous waters from a corre- sponding great section of the continent.
These three great sections of North America are unequal in ex- tent, and different in the character of their surface. At least one half of the continent is drained by streams entering the Atlantic ; and of that half, the waters from the larger, as well as the more fertile portion, are carried by the Mississippi into the Mexican Gulf. Of the other two sections, that which borders on the Arctic Sea is probably the more extensive. The Atlantic and the Arctic sections present each a large proportion of surface nearly plane, and comparatively little elevated above the sea ; and the line of sepa- ration between them is so indistinctly marked as to be, in many places, imperceptible. The Pacific section, on the contrary, is trav- ersed in every part by steep and lofty ridges of highland; and it is completely divided from the other portions by a chain of moun- tains, extending, in continuation of the Andes of South America, from the Isthmus of Panama, north-westward, to the utmost ex- tremities of the continent in that direction.
Of the Atlantic coasts of America it is unnecessary to speak.
The Pacific coast extends from Panamá westward and north- ward, without any remarkable irregularity in its outline, to the tropic of Cancer, almost immediately under which is the entrance of the great Gulf of California, separating the Peninsula of Cali- fornia from the main continent, on the east. From the southern extremity of this peninsula, the coast runs generally north-westward to Mount St. Elias, a lofty volcanic peak, rising from the shore of the ocean under the 60th parallel; beyond which, the con- tinent stretches far westward, between the Pacific on the south, and the Arctic Sea on the north, to its termination at Cape Prince of Wales, on Bering's Strait, the passage separating America from Asia.
The part of this coast south of the 49th degree of latitude pre-
1
2
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
sents few indentations, and the islands in its vicinity are neither numerous nor large. North of the 49th degree, on the contrary, the mainland is everywhere penetrated by inlets and bays; and near it are thousands of islands, many of them extensive, lying singly or in groups, separated from each other and from the conti- nent by narrow intricate channels.
Bering's Strait is the only direct pass of communication between the Pacific and the Arctic Sea. Beyond it, the shores of the two great continents which it separates, run in opposite courses. The shores of Asia and Europe have been explored in their whole length on the Arctic Sea, though no vessel has hitherto made a voyage along them from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or vice versa. The north coast of America has been traced from Cape Prince of Wales north-eastward, to Cape Barrow, near the 71st degree of latitude, and thence eastward more than fifteen hundred miles, though not continuously to the Atlantic. The portion north of Hudson's Bay is still imperfectly discovered; and the interesting question whether the Arctic Sea there mingles its waters with those of the Atlantic, or is separated from them by the extension of the continent to the north pole, remains undetermined. Many cir- cumstances, however, combine to favor the belief that a commu- nication will be found between the two oceans, cither through Fox's Channel, the northernmost part of Hudson's Bay, or through Lan- caster Sound, which joins Baffin's Bay, under the 74th parallel of latitude.
The Pacific coast of America, in its whole length, from the southern extremity of California to Bering's Strait, is bordered by lofty mountains, which appear to form a continuous chain, partially broken in a few places by the passage across it of rivers from the interior. These mountains rise, for the most part, im- mediately from the sea-shore, above which they may be seen towering one, two, and even three, miles in perpendicular eleva- tion : in some parts, however, the main ridge is separated from the ocean by tracts of lower country, as much as one hundred miles in breadth, traversed by parallel lines of hills. The peninsulas of California and Aliaska, the numerous islands which mask the coast of the continent, between the 49th and the 58th parallels, and the Aleutian Islands, which stretch in a line across the sea, from the southern extremity of Aliaska to the vicinity of the opposite Asiatic peninsula of Kamtchatka, may all be considered as pro- longations of this chain through the Pacific.
The great chain of mountains which divides the streams empty- ing into the Pacific from those flowing into the other divisions of the ocean, runs through the northern continent, as through the southern, in a line nearly parallel with the shore of the Pacific, to
3
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
which it is also generally much nearer than to the Atlantic. Under the 40th parallel of latitude, where the western section of Amer- ica is widest, the distance across it, from the summit of the dividing chain to the Pacific, is about seven hundred miles, which is not more than one third of the distance from the same point of the mountains to the Atlantic, measured in the same latitude.
The part of the dividing chain extending south of the 40th degree of latitude to Mexico, has received many names, no one of which seems to have been universally adopted. The Anahuac Moun- tains is, however, the appellation most commonly applied to it at present, and by which it will be distinguished in the following pages.
The portion of the great ridge north of the 40th parallel is generally known as the Rocky or Stony Mountains. From that latitude, its course is nearly due north-westward, and gradually approaching the line of the Pacific coast to the 54th degree, where the main chain turns more westward, and continues in that direction so far as it has been traced. Another ridge, called the Chipewyan Mountains, indeed extends, as if in prolongation of the Rocky Mountains, from the 53d parallel north-westward to the Arctic Sea, where it ends near the 70th degree of latitude : but the territory on its western side is drained by streams entering that sea, either directly or passing through the ridge into the Mackenzie River, which flows along its eastern base.
Among the Rocky Mountains, nearly all the greatest rivers in North America have their sources. Within a hundred miles of the point where that chain is crossed by the 41st parallel of latitude, rise, on the eastern side, the Missouri, the Yellow-stone, the Platte, and the Arkansas, the waters of all which are carried through the Mississippi into the Mexican Gulf, and the River Bravo del Norte, which falls into the same arm of the Atlantic ; while on the western side are found the springs of the Lewis or Snake, the principal southern branch of the Columbia, which enters the Pacific near the 46th degree of latitude, and those of the Colorado, which terminates in the head or northern extremity of the Califor- nian Gulf. In the same great chain, also, near the 53d de- gree of latitude, the northern branch of the Columbia runs from a lake, situated within a few feet of another lake, whence issues the west branch of the Athabasca, one of the affluents to the Mackenzie ; and at a short distance south rises the Saskatchawine, which takes its course eastward to Lake Winnipeg, and contributes to the supply of Hudson's Bay.
Between the two great lines of mountains which thus extend along the eastern and the western borders of the Pacific section of North America, are other ridges, some apparently isolated, but the greater number connected with the above-described chains. The
4
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
most extensive of these intermediate ridges is called the Snowy Mountains, and is believed to stretch uninterruptedly from the Rocky Mountains to the westernmost range, nearly in the course of the 41st parallel of latitude, constituting the southern bound- ary of the territory drained by the Columbia River. Another ridge, called the Blue Mountains, runs northward from the Snowy Mountains, bounding the valley of the Snake or Lewis River on the west. A lofty range also extends from the westernmost chain, near the 48th degree of latitude, northward to the Rocky Moun- tains, near the 54th degree, separating the waters which flow into the northern branch of the Columbia from those of Fraser's River on the west, and forming another great natural line of boundary of the territory called Oregon, drained by the former river.
In the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains, on the east, are several ridges, running generally parallel to the great chain, among which are the Wind River and Long's ranges, comprising some of the highest peaks in America, and the ridge separating the valley of the River Bravo del Norte from that of the Arkansas. Farther east the country becomes nearly level ; and the central portion of the continent, extending from the foot of the last-mentioned ridges to the Mississippi, Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Sea, may be con- sidered as forming one plain, so slight and gradual are the inequal- ities of its surface.
With regard to the geology of this section of America, - the Rocky Mountains consist, so far as they have been examined, entirely of primary formations ; while the regions beyond them, especially those of the great chain, which runs nearest the Pacific coast, and the adjacent islands, exhibit everywhere traces of vol- canic eruptions, and contain numerous volcanoes in constant. action. The regions extending eastward from the Rocky Moun- tains, to a great distance, are mostly composed of a very saliferous sandstone, overlaid in some places by beds of clay, and near the streams by thin layers of alluvium. No signs of past or present volcanic action have been discovered, in any part of America, between the great dividing chain and the Atlantic, north of the tropic of Cancer.
The countries on the Pacific side of North America also differ materially in climate from those on the eastern side of the con- tinent situated in the same latitudes, and at equal distances from and elevations above the sea. These differences are less within the limits of the torrid zone, and perhaps also beyond the 60th parallel of latitude ; but in the intermediate space, every part west of the dividing chain of mountains is much warmer, and is less frequently visited by rain or snow, than places in the Atlantic or the Arctic sections, under the same conditions as above expressed.
5
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
Thus the north-westernmost regions of America appear to be almost as cold, and to receive as much water from the heavens, as those surrounding Baffin's Bay, or those in their own vicinity in Asia ; but in the countries on the Pacific side, corresponding, in latitude and other respects, with Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, the ground is rarely covered with snow for more than three or four weeks in the year, and it often remains unfrozen throughout the winter. In the territories on the western coasts, opposite to Virginia and Carolina, the winter is merely a wet season, no rain falling at any other time ; and in the Peninsula of California, which is included between the same parallels of latitude as Georgia and Florida, the temperature is as high as in any tropical region, and many years in succession pass without a shower or even a cloud. It is likewise observed that the interior portions of the Pacific section are in general more dry, and that the difference in tem- perature between the day and the night is much greater, than in the countries nearer the sea.
The central portions of the continent, immediately east of the Rocky Mountains, exhibit the same peculiarities of climate with those adjoining west of that chain, though in a less degree. The vast plains within several hundred miles east of the dividing chain of mountains, between the 38th and the 50th parallels of latitude, present a surface of rocks and sand ; and except in the vicinity of the streams which cross them from the mountains, they produce nothing but stiff grass and shrubs. Descending towards the Mississippi, the climate becomes less dry, and gradually as- sumes all the characters of that of the Atlantic regions. North of the 50th parallel there is more rain at all seasons of the year ; but the intensity of the cold and the length of the winter render the country almost every where uninhabitable by those who depend on agriculture for their support.
In consequence of this greater dryness of the climate on the western side of America, and the proximity of the dividing chain of mountains to the coast, the rivers on that side are generally neither so long, nor so abundant in water, nor navigable to such distances from their mouths, as those which fall into the Atlantic. The Columbia and the Colorado are the only streams flowing from America into the Pacific, which can be compared in any of those respects with several in the other sections of the continent ; being both of them inferior to the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Ama- zons, the Plate, and the Orinoco. The rivers of Western America present, in fact, few or no facilities for commercial transportation. They nearly all run, in their whole course, through deep ravines among stony mountains ; and they are frequently interrupted by ledges or accumulations of rock, producing falls and rapids, to
6
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
overcome which all the resources of art would probably be una- vailing. East of the Rocky Mountains are many great streams flowing from that chain into the Missouri ; but none of them secm calculated to serve as channels of communication between the eastern and the western sides of the continent.
Under circumstances of climate, soil, and conformation of sur- face, so different, it may be readily supposed that considerable · differences must exist between the natural productions of the countries on the western side of North America, and those of the eastern section of the continent. Accordingly it is found that few species of plants, and indeed of animals, are common to the Atlantic and the Pacific territories ; and that many genera which abound on the one side of the dividing chain of mountains, are rare, if not wanting, on the other side. Some vegetables acquire a greater development in the vicinity of the north-west coasts of the continent, than in any other part of the world ; but on the other hand, large portions of the Pacific section are absolutely bar- ren, and incapable of being rendered productive by art. In re- compense, however, the rivers abound in fish, especially in salmon, which ascend to great distances in the interior, and form the prin- cipal food of the aboriginal inhabitants.
With respect to the aboriginal inhabitants of North America -the Arctic coasts are occupied by a peculiar race, called the Eskimaux, who are also found on the northernmost shores of the Pacific, in- termingled with the Tchukski, the aborigines of Northern Asia. The remainder of the continent seems to have been inhabited, prior to the entrance of the Europeans, by one and the same race of men ; the natives of the various portions differing from each other slightly, considering the differences of climate, soil, and modes of life. That some admixture with the races of Southern Asia may have taken place, is, however, not improbable, considering the fact that two vessels from Japan have been driven on the west coasts of North America since 1813.
The establishments of civilized nations in these countries are as yet all on a small scale. The Russians occupy the coasts and islands north of the latitude of 54 degrees 40 minutes : their settlements are all under the control of the Russian American Company, a corporation enjoying the special protection of the im- perial government, and are devoted exclusively to the collection of the furs and skins of the land and sea animals abounding in that quarter, great numbers of which are annually transported to Asia and Europe. The British and the Citizens of the United States are spread throughout the regions south and east of those occupied by the Russians, as far as California ; and have been hith- erto likewise chiefly engaged in the fur trade, though some agricul-
7
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
tural settlements have been formed, by the people of both nations, on the waters of the Columbia River : within the last two or three years, however, particularly in 1843, large bodies of emigrants from the United States have gone to those countries, respecting whom no precise accounts have been yet obtained. The British are all under the direction of the Hudson's Bay Company, which possesses, in virtue of a grant from the British government, the exclusive privilege of trading in all the Indian countries of Amer- ica belonging to or claimed by that power, and they are restrained and protected by British laws, under an act of parliament, extend- ing the jurisdiction of the courts of Canada over all those coun- tries, so far as regards subjects of Great Britain. The citizens of the United States, on the contrary, are deprived of all protection, and are independent of all control ; as they are not subject to British laws, and their own government exercises no authority whatever over any part of America west of the Rocky Mountains. On the coasts of California, south of the 38th degree of latitude, are many colonies, garrisons, and missionary stations, founded by the Span- iards during the last century, and now maintained by the Mexi- cans, who succeeded to the rights of Spain in that part of America in 1821 : this country, though thinly inhabited by a wretched, indolent population, is the only part of the Pacific section of North America, which can be considered as regularly settled ; which possesses an organized, civil and social system, and where indi- viduals hold a property in the soil secured to them by law.
Each of these four nations claims the exclusive possession of a portion of the territory on the Pacific side of America north of the Californian Gulf ; and each of them is a party to some treaty with another, for the temporary use, or definitive sovereignty of such portion. Thus it has been agreed by treaty, in 1819, between the United States and Spain, renewed in 1828 between the United States and Mexico - that a line drawn from the Rocky Moun- tains to the Pacific, in the course of the 42d parallel of latitude, should separate the dominions of the former power on the north from those of Mexico on the south. It was in like manner agreed in 1824, by convention between the United States and Russia - that the former nation should make no establishments on the coasts north of the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes, and that the latter should make none south of the same line ; but this convention was neutralized, and in fact abrogated, by a treaty concluded be- tween Russia and Great Britain in the following year, by which all the coasts and islands north of the latitude of 54 degrees 40 minutes, and the whole territory west of a line drawn along the summits of the highlands bordering the western shores of the continent, from that parallel northward to Mount St. Elias,
8
GEOGRAPHY - GENERAL VIEW.
under the 60th degree, and thence due north to the Arctic Sca, were declared to be the exclusive property of Russia, while all north and east of that line were to belong to Great Britain.
Thus we find on the western side of North America only two lines of distinct boundary or partition, as yet settled between the governments of civilized nations - the one between two powers, the United States and Mexico - and the other between two differ- ent powers, Great Britain and Russia - each line traversing the whole breadth of the Pacific section of the continent. Of the vast territory comprised between these two lines, no spot has yet been assigned by mutual agreement to any civilized nation. The United States claim the country northward from the 42d parallel, and Great Britain claims that extending south and east from the other line, each to a distance undefined, but so far as to secure for itself the whole, or nearly the whole, of the region traversed by the Columbia River ; and, neither nation being willing to recede from its pretensions, all the countries claimed by either, west of the Rocky Mountains, remain, by convention between the two governments concluded in 1827, free and open to the citizens or subjects of both.
It would be improper here to omit to notice the group of the Sandwich Islands, or Hawaiian Archipelago, as they are some- times called, which, from their peculiar position, within two thou- sand five hundred miles of the American coast, between the 19th and the 22d parallels of latitude, in the direct track of vessels crossing the ocean, as well as from the productiveness of their soil and the amenity of their climate, seem destined to be, to the coun- tries bordering on the North Pacific, what the West Indies are to those on the North Atlantic ; and probably to afford, to some mar- itime nation, the means of exerting a powerful influence, political as well as commercial, over the whole western division of America. They remain in the possession of their aboriginal occupants, who appear to evince considerable aptitude to receive instruction, and have, with the aid of some missionaries from the United States, established a regular government in the form of a hereditary mon- archy, under constitutional limits. Their independence has, within a few years, been more than once threatened, and must always be in danger, from the jealousy or ambition of the great maritime powers of Europe and America ; to one or the other of which they will doubtless be rendered subject, whenever the present peaceful condition of the world is broken by war between those powers.
Having presented this concise general view of the western sec- tion of North America, its divisions will now be examined in de- tail, beginning with the most southern, under the heads of CALI- FORNIA, OREGON, and RUSSIAN AMERICA.
CALIFORNIA.
THE name California was first assigned, by the Spaniards, in 1536, to the southern portion of the great peninsula which ex- tends on the western side of North America, from the 32d de- gree of latitude to and within the limits of the torrid zone; and it was afterwards made to comprehend the whole division of the continent north-west of Mexico, just as that of Florida was ap- plied to the opposite portion on the Atlantic side. At the present day, California is usually considered as including the peninsula, and the territory extending from it, on the Pacific, northward as far as the limits of Oregon, or the country drained by the Columbia River ; Cape Mendocino, in the latitude of 40 degrees 19 min- utes, being assumed as the point of separation of the two coasts. The Mexican government, however, regards the 42d parallel of latitude as the northern limit of California, agreeably to the treaty concluded between that republic and the United States of Amer- ica in 1828.
California is naturally divided into two portions : the Peninsula, or Old, or Lower California, in the south, and Continental, or New, or Upper California, in the north ; the line of separation between which runs along the 32d parallel of latitude, from the head or northern extremity of the Californian Gulf to the Pacific.
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