USA > Massachusetts > Commonwealth history of Massachusetts, colony, province and state, volume 1 > Part 39
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Cattle were brought over soon after the first settlement at Plymouth and also by the Massachusetts Bay colonists, and by 1650 importations were made from Virginia. Most of those from Europe came from Devonshire and formed the basis of the present Devons. A small importation of Danish cattle to New Hampshire in 1633 later found its way to Bos- ton and vicinity. Sheep were also imported, but it was more difficult in the early years to establish this stock, owing to wolves and the severe winters. The Massachusetts Bay gov- ernment tried to encourage the industry in order to provide wool for clothing; and special rights were granted for sheep in the common pastures.
In the vicinity of Boston 31 farms in Muddy River (now Brookline) in 1687 had 195 cattle, and 13 farms had 214 sheep. The largest herd reported was 13, and the largest flock, 40. In Rumney Marsh (now Chelsea) 32 farms had 344 cattle and 30 farms had 1544 sheep. The maximum num- ber of cattle on a single farm was 40, and of sheep 370. In Ipswich and Newbury, however, protected by the ocean and
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the Merrimack River, sheep raising was more successful, and there are records of five flocks of 1000 each in Newbury. By the end of the century there was sufficient wool clipped in the colony to supply domestic needs. Other live stock imported included horses, swine and poultry.
OCCUPATIONS
The forests provided ample supplies for domestic needs, and material for export. Lumber for cooperage and clap- boards had a ready market; the white pine was eagerly sought for masts and spars for the royal navy; and timber was used in large quantities for ship-building. The forests also supplied materials for the manufacture of tar, rosin, turpentine, and potash. As water power was available from the numerous streams throughout the colony, every settlement had its saw- mill. Before the end of the century timber was scarce along the coast; and demand for it was one of the factors which drove the pioneers to make settlements in the interior.
The trapping of fur-bearing animals added to the income of many a farmer. Beaver were common in the first half of the century, and provided a large enough supply to give colo- nial hatters an advantage over those in England.
The fisheries engaged the employment of a considerable portion of those who lived near the coast. This industry provided welcome food in the earlier days before agriculture was finally established, and fish furnished an essential fer- tilizer in the cultivation of crops.
More important than either of these objects, fish was the basis of an export trade, especially to Catholic countries. The General Court endeavored to foster this trade and in 1639 forbade the use of cod or bass "for manuring of ground," and exempted those employed in the industry from taxation and military training. Coast dwellers were encouraged to build weirs for catching alewives. The fishing industry promoted the building of vessels, and several hundred vessels were launched from the coast towns in the seventeenth century.
Representatives of the principal handicraft industries plied their trade in the larger settlements. Among the early rec- ords we read of carpenters, wheelwrights, smiths, gunsmiths, coopers, curriers, ropemakers, cordwainers, glaziers, soapmak-
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ers, tailors, weavers, hatters, glovers, bakers and butchers. Of the factory type of industry there were gristmills, tidemills, sawmills, hempmills, tanneries, malt-works, breweries, salt- peter works, iron works, brickyards, and shipyards.
The smaller settlements, however, included few mechanics. The carding, spinning, and weaving of wool and flax was done in the home; even the furniture, tools, clothing, shoes, and bed- ding were made by household labor. As early as 1640 the General Court directed town authorities to consider "what course may be taken for teaching boys and girls in all towns the spinning of yarn." A little later an obligation was placed by law upon each family which could furnish a spinner to spin three pounds monthly for thirty weeks.
HIGHER CLASSES
Every settlement had its minister, under penalty of being "presented" before the General Court; and a few, especially Boston and Salem, maintained more than one. Only the larger towns had a surgeon or professional doctor, and the same was true of lawyers. Savage, in his Genealogical Dic- tionary names 134 practitioners who migrated to all the New England colonies previous to 1692. Ministers frequently served in the smaller communities, both as lawyer and physi- cian.
The General Court early recognized the value of educa- tion. "It being one chief object of the old deluder Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures," it was or- dered that a teacher be engaged in every township which had fifty households, and in addition a grammar school, if there be one hundred families, to instruct youth for the university. It was hard to enforce this law owing to the difficulties of travel; and parents objected to taxation for schools if their children could not attend. The actual number and service of the schools is discussed in the chapter on Harvard College in this volume.
Some of the larger towns, such as Boston, Ipswich and Salem, had shopkeepers and merchants who devoted them- selves solely to trade; and a few of these, who engaged in commerce with Europe and the West Indies, accumulated for- tunes for that day. Of the 91 grantees of Newbury in 1635,
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two were clergymen, eight were gentlemen, two or three were merchants, one maltster, one schoolmaster, one physician, one sea-captain, one mate of a ship, one dyer, one glover, three or four tanners, seven or eight shoemakers, two wheelwrights, two blacksmiths, two linen weavers, two weavers, one cooper, one saddler, one sawyer and two or three carpenters. A few were designated as yeomen.
REGULATION OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY
The colonists brought from England the current policy of regulating industry and trade. Standards of quality of goods were prescribed and wages and prices were fixed by law. Leg- islation in regard to these matters was confused, and many of the laws quickly repealed, as experience proved them im- practical. Particularly was this so in the fixing of wages. In the first year of settlement in 1630, the wages of carpenters, joiners, bricklayers, sawyers and thatchers were limited to two shillings a day, and if more was given a fine of 10 shillings levied upon both employer and worker. The daily wage of unskilled laborers was set at one shilling and at only sixpence if meat and drink were provided. In less than a year, as might be expected when labor was in great demand by a com- munity eager to build homes, this law was rescinded and work- men were left "at liberty as men shall reasonably agree."
In 1633, however, wages of the principal skilled trades were again fixed at varying rates according as to whether the workmen received "diet" or not. The wages of "inferior" workmen were left to the decision of the several towns, as determined by the constable and two local citizens. Further- more, it was specified that "all workmen shall work the whole day, allowing convenient time for food and rest." A year later the fine imposed upon an employer for exceeding the legal limit was repealed and towns were given control of oppressive bargains. Each town was forbidden to offer wages which would entice labor from other towns and thus occasion complaint.
These regulations did not solve the wage problems of the colonists; for in 1638 a committee of leading citizens was ap- pointed to investigate the whole subject and frame new laws. Prices by this time were falling and the established wages
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proved oppressive; in 1641, it was therefore ordered that wages be lowered according to the fall in prices of commodi- ties. In other words, wages were adjusted proportionately to the cost of living.
In the latter half of the century, the regulation of wages was left to the jurisdiction of towns; and local documents con- tain frequent records of such action. For example, in one town in 1668, the wages of shinglers was fixed at 7 sh. 6 d. per 1000; and in 1675 the wage of laborers harvesting corn was limited to 1 sh. 6 d. for a day's work; and in another settlement an employer was summoned and fined for paying too low wages to workmen employed in making nails and rivets.
As in the mother country, special trades were recognized by law. In 1648 the shoemakers of Boston were incorporated with a long list of dignitaries : master, warden, clerk, sealer, searcher, and beadle. The company, or union as it would now be called, was given power to determine admittance to the trade and prescribe rules of the craft, provided that prices were not enhanced, and that no shoemaker should refuse to make shoes for any inhabitant who wished to provide his own leather. The coopers were also honored with the same dignity of incorporation.
More permanent were the regulations for maintaining standards of quality and prevention of deceit. Corn must be weighed before and after grinding. Casks and barrels must be gauged and branded to make sure that they were of full size. Each baker must have a distinct mark for his bread. Bread under legal weight was forfeited for the use of the poor. Malt for beer must be cleansed; and none could under- take the work of brewing beer who did not have sufficient skill. In every hogshead of beer sold for three pence a quart, the brewer must use six bushels of good barley malt, and for cheaper brews proportionately less malt.
Inspectors oversaw the packing of beef, pork, and fish and were authorized to condemn the sale of all sun-burned, salt- burned and dry fish that had been first pickled. To prevent deceit in tanning leather, it was ordered that no butcher, cur- rier, or shoemaker should exercise the "mystery" of a tanner, and to prevent waste every hide must be dried and sent to a
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tannery. The size of bricks was carefully prescribed; and the clay, from which bricks were made, must be dug before winter set in, and turned before made up. Because wood and lumber frequently were sold at a shortage of five per cent, official measures were appointed.
PRICES AND MONOPOLIES
The prices of staple commodities did not escape scrutiny of the General Court. Particularly was this true of bread and beer. The weight of a loaf of bread selling for two pence must not be under twelve ounces, and later the price of a loaf must be proportional to the price of wheat. The price of beer was limited to eight shillings a barrel. In 1633 the Court declared that prices must not "exceed the bounds of modera- tion," and that the prices of provisions, clothing and tools must not be more than four pence on a shilling more than the cost in England. A profit of 33 per cent was thus legally recognized. This, however, was soon repealed, but extortion was forbidden; and, if practised, the offender was to be brought before the General Court. Inn keepers were forbid- den to charge more than sixpence for a meal.
Monopolies had been condemned in England in the early part of the century; and the colonists were heartily in sym- pathy with this prohibition. They enacted, 1641, a law that "there shall be no monopolies granted or allowed among us, but of such new inventions as are profitable to the country, and that for a short time." A few patents were granted, as one for "improved sawmills and scythes," and one for the making of salt by a new method. Salt was greatly needed for the fishing industry ; and the General Court made frequent efforts to encourage its supply. Samuel Winslow in 1641 was given an exclusive privilege to set up salt works, good for ten years, provided he produced within one year; and John Winthrop was granted the same privilege in 1656, to manufac- ture "after his new way," the right being extended to 26 years.
A monopolistic right was granted in 1643 to a builder of a tide mill in Boston, to grind corn; and later in 1671 an exclusive right to a company of Boston merchants to make tar, and sell pitch, rosin, and oil of turpentine. Grants of this
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nature, however, were few; competition, provided that there was not extortion, and subject to the regulatory supervision of the Court as to prices and wages, was the rule of industrial life.
Sawmills and gristmills were regarded as quasi-public util- ities. Water power was not recognized as subject to absolute private ownership. The construction of mill-dams was reg- ulated, and the erection of a mill frequently required the permission of town authorities. Millstones, screens, and fans were inspected; the rates which millers could charge were fixed; one-sixteenth for wheat, and one-twelfth for corn.
SUPERVISION OF PRIVATE EXPENDITURE
Not only did the colonial government regulate the economic occupations of the inhabitants ; it also supervised their expen- ditures. Indulgence in luxuries, particularly by those who had not adequate means, was regarded as an economic waste, in- consistent with the development of a sound and stable com- munity. Moreover, such indulgence ran counter to the religious ideals which inspired the leaders of the settlement. Early ordinances forbade the making or selling of lace which tended "to the nourishing of pride and exhausting of men's estates." Churches were to reform their members against the use of immoderate great sleeves, knots of ribbon, broad shoulder bands and other like superfluities.
This condemnation proved too sweeping, for many of the settlers had been accustomed to such finery in England, and were not disposed to lower their standard of living, if they had the means to support it.
The act was repealed; but the General Court directed its attention more particularly to "persons of inferior position and education" who sought to "take upon the garb of gentle- men" by the wearing of gold or silver lace, point at the knees, or walking in great boots. It was also held "intolerable" that women of lower rank should wear silk hoods or scarfs. It was therefore ordered that the wearing of costly apparel be restricted to those who had an estate of £200. This law was by no means a dead letter, especially in its application to women; for town records contain entries of presentments to the Court for transgressing the order. The defense generally
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rested upon proof that the husband was worth £200. As the colony grew in numbers and in wealth, regulation by law was less resorted to; but throughout the century, public sentiment frowned upon waste in personal adornment.
RESPECT FOR PROPERTY RIGHTS
The colonists were mindful of the rights of property, and by early legislation laid the foundations of a stable economic system. Here were thousands of settlers taking possession of a new territory, affording abundant opportunity for dis- putes over property rights. They therefore promptly estab- lished courts and legal forms of procedure. To avoid con- troversies over the ownership of land, the General Court ordered that mortgages, conveyances and deeds of land be recorded with public officials ; and for the protection of private credit, land and houses, as well as personal property, were made liable to the payment of debts. Conveyances which defrauded creditors were void.
The principle of democracy governed the law of inheritance when there was no will. One-third of the personal estate went to the widow, besides her dowry in house and land; the re- mainder was divided in equal portions, except that the eldest son had a double portion. This is an echo of the English principle of primogeniture, but the law gave recognition to younger children. The preamble of the statute states that inasmuch as estates consisted chiefly of lands, subdued and improved by proprietors, with assistance of children, and the younger children generally have "been longest and most ser- viceable unto their parents," and had no personal estates of their own, it was fitting that they receive their reward.
WAGES
Prices and wages during the Colonial period were quoted in terms of English money; but the few following quotations to illustrate the cost and standard of living in the colony are converted into current equivalents for the sake of greater clearness. Corn during the first ten years of the Bay Colony stood at about the equivalent of $1.25 a bushel. After that, for the remainder of the century it fluctuated around $.75.
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ROADS AND TRAVEL
Wheat, with the exception of a few years, was $1.25 a bushel. These prices compare favorably with those prevailing in more recent times.
Wages, however, were on a much lower plane. In 1640 laborers received the equivalent of about $.37 per day; and in 1666 $.50 per day; or $50 a year when hired by the year. At the earlier date, therefore, three days' labor was roughly needed to purchase a bushel of corn; and twenty-five years later the labor of a day and a half would buy an equivalent amount. Today the labor of an hour or two would purchase the same commodity.
At the middle of the seventeenth century sugar was at the equivalent of $.15 a pound ; beef $.06, and pork $.08. Later, beef was as cheap as $.04; and pork $.06. In 1670 butter was priced at $.12 a pound. A quotation for tea appears as early as 1666 at $15 per pound; and candy in the same year was $1.50 per pound. A little earlier, broadcloth was $3 a yard and linen $.60 a yard.
Between 1640 and 1650 a cow sold for the equivalent of $25. The price then fell to $15 and in some years less. For many years the standard quoted price for a horse was $50; and the cost of shoeing $.25.
As a measure of the cost of living for a family of the professional class, the salaries of ministers provide interesting evidence. In 1659, according to the church records of Dor- chester, Hingham, which had 100 families, allowed its minis- ter £90 per annum; Weymouth, with 60 families, £100. Hull, the smallest enumerated, with only 20 families, paid £40. Ministers, as a rule, provided a part of their income by cul- tivating their land; and frequently received donations from their parishioners. But frequently the towns were lax in paying the full amount of salary; and town church records are filled with complaints of these shortcomings. Neverthe- less, the ministers were far the most highly paid of all pro- fessional men, and much above the average of comfortable farmers or business men.
ROADS AND TRAVEL
Roads were poor, and, until the towns were sufficiently or- ganized to supervise them, were under the watchful eye of
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the General Court. There were constant complaints of de- fective highways. Towns were fined for bad roads. Between 1638 and 1640 one town was fined three times; and at a single session in 1641 eight towns, including Boston, were enjoined to "mend their ways" upon pain of fine. Not only were roads in bad repair, but they were inconveniently laid out, frequently following narrow Indian trails which were circuitous to avoid crossing broad streams or rivers.
In 1639 the Court took summary measures : because in some places the roads were "too straight" and in other places trav- ellers were forced "to go too far about," it was ordered that they be laid anew by special town commissioners. These were given full power as to location, provided they did not "pull down any man's house," or lay open any garden or orchard. By the middle of the century the administration of the roads was turned over to the towns.
Transportation across rivers, if fords were not available, was generally by ferry. Permits with rights to charge tolls were granted by the General Court. A few bridges were con- structed, but these gave more trouble than the roads. Towns were reluctant to bear the expense; and whenever the river was the dividing line between two townships there was ground for bitter dispute as to the distribution of the costs. A bridge was built in 1638 at Medford across the Mystic River, wide enough to permit the passage of ox-teams and carts. Its main- tenance was met by toll charges, ranging from a penny for a single person to a shilling for a cart. To aid travellers be- tween Boston and Salem, the Court gave Lynn £50 for con- structing a thirty-foot bridge over the Saugus River, and for its maintenance an annual subsidy.
The colonists were, however, unskilled in the art of bridge- building; accidents occurred and finally the General Court ordered that if a traveller lost his life because of a defective bridge, the county or town should pay £100; and if either he or his property were injured, double damages be levied. Finally it was ordered that the counties and town defray the cost of building, and the Court advised that only a few be constructed.
For the convenience of travellers, the Court also saw to it that taverns be provided. Towns were enjoined to supply
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them under penalty of a fine for non-compliance and the inns were carefully regulated; licenses were required; the prices of meals fixed by statute; and landlords forbidden to give credit under penalty of forfeiture of the debt. From the earliest times complaints were made of the uproariousness and evil influence of drinking places. Drunkards were numer- ous. Regulations of the sale of spirituous liquors are among the earliest and most persistent acts of colonial and local au- thorities.
CIRCULATING MEDIUM
The colonists were greatly handicapped both in their individ- ual activities and in their governmental operations by the lack of money. The balance of trade with England was continu- ously adverse; however prosperous the settlers might be in the building up of substantial homes and farms, this lack could not be supplied until there was a surplus of goods for export. Although a brisk trade was carried on, the bulk of the community devoted itself chiefly to the production of wealth in forms which were not exportable. Moreover, the settlers were in constant need of products from Europe, a de- mand which could not be satisfied otherwise than by imports until domestic manufactures were established. This demand drained the colony of the scanty coin which trickled in from the West Indies, due to an excess of exports over imports in the trade with these islands.
The colonists had to resort to primitive tools of exchange. In 1631, the General Court ordered that corn be received in payment for debts, unless money or beaver was specifically named in a previous agreement. Even for small transactions, corn was tendered by the "quart, bottle, and peck." As corn fluctuated in value, the Court from year to year fixed the rate at which it should be received both for public dues and private debts. The rate varied from five to six shillings a bushel.
Beaver skins served as currency, for they were highly prized as exchange to send to London. Bullets were used as farthings and were recognized as legal tender.
More common than any commodity was wampum, the In- dian bead money. The Pilgrims were introduced to this medium by trading with Indians to the south of them. The
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beads were of two colors, white and black; the latter worth twice the value of the white. The white beads were made from the inner whorls of a shell, known as the pyrula carica, found south of Cape Cod; the black beads, from the quahog or com- mon clamshell. The inner whorl of the shell was about one- eighth of an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch in length. In order that the beads might be strung-and it was this which gave them their value to the Indians - the shell was bored with a stone drill, an operation which required considerable labor. The Indians prized them for decoration on strips of deerskin, and more than 10,000 might be embroid- ered on a chieftain's belt, four or five inches wide.
At first a fathom of wampum was equivalent to 60 pence; but the value, like that of corn, fluctuated. In 1637, the Court fixed the rate at six beads for a penny, for amounts under a shilling; in 1641, it legalized their tender for amounts under ten pounds. This, however, proved unsatisfactory ; and two years later, its legal tender quality was reduced to two pounds. In 1648, the Court ordered that wampum be strung in different denominations; white beads in denominations of one, three and twelve pence; black beads in denominations of two, two and one-half, six and ten shillings. Not until 1661 did the colonists cease to accept it as a legal currency.
Other staple commodities were used as a medium of ex- change. Flax, hemp, tar, turpentine, leather and oil were made receivable for taxes. In 1662, the General Court ordered that the inhabitants of Hampshire County should pay their taxes to the county treasurer in fat or young cattle, as well as in corn, at current prices in that vicinity. Students at Har- vard College availed themselves of a wide range of commodi- ties in meeting their charges; in the college accounts for the years 1650-59, mention is made not only of silver, but wheat, sugar, malt, parsnips, butter, apples, nails, satin, and a sheep weighing 67 pounds. An early entry on the college books is, "A goat of the Watertown rate. And he dyed."
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