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RETROSPECT
Lives of Webster,-some good and some very poor-have appeared from time to time. Statues of him stand in public places and portraits of him adorn legislative chambers. In Faneuil Hall the immense canvas of Healy, depicting the "Re- ply to Hayne," preserves there the memory of the man who, more than any other Massachusetts man before or since, was qualified to speak from that platform. Daniel Webster is far from being a "neglected statesman." Indeed it may be argued that his reputation has never stood higher in America than it stands today.
In the course of his career as "the first citizen of Massa- chusetts," Webster played many parts. As an orator he still holds the supreme position among Massachusetts and Ameri-
138
DANIEL WEBSTER, STATESMAN
can masters of eloquence, and in the world of oratory his only peers are Demosthenes, Cicero, and Burke. As a lawyer he can be assigned no rank below the first, where he takes his place beside Pinkney and Choate. As Secretary of State, he has the distinction of having in two periods of service maintained our national dignity and honor before the world.
Webster's imperishable contribution to history was his in- sistence that the United States is a centralized nation, not a confederation of separate units. He appeared in a position of leadership at a period when there was honest doubt as to the exact intention of the signers of the Constitution. Courageously he espoused the cause of a strong and indissolu- ble Union, and in law cases, in Senate debates, and in public addresses, through a time of bitter controversy, he upheld by his speeches and acts the doctrine of an inviolable American nationality.
He died at a moment when it seemed as if all his energy had been spent in vain. Yet, when the Civil War broke out, it was largely the nationalistic sentiment created and fostered by Daniel Webster which carried the North to victory. Ulti- mately his theory of the Union triumphed over that of Jeffer- son, Calhoun, and Jefferson Davis. This country owes more to Daniel Webster than to any other statesman of his epoch the blessing that its citizens are today under one flag from the Atlantic to the Pacific, "from sea to shining sea." This state- ment is more than rhetoric : it is the simple truth !
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARTLETT, S. C .- The Early Life of Daniel Webster (Reprinted from the Dartmouth Literary Monthly, October, 1898)-A summary of inter- esting facts regarding Webster's boyhood and youth.
BEVERIDGE, ALBERT JEREMIAH .- The Life of John Marshall (4 vols., Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1916-1919)-Volume IV of this admirable biog- raphy contains much material on Webster as a lawyer.
BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE .- Twenty Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., Henry Bill, 1884-1886)-The first six chapters cover the clos- ing period of Webster's life.
BOSTON : CITY COUNCIL .- A Memorial of Daniel Webster (Boston, Little, Brown, 1853)-This includes the proceedings and resolutions of many Boston organizations, together with an interesting account of Webster's last illness and death.
BRADFORD, GAMALIEL .- "Portrait of a Neglected Statesman" (Harper's Magazine: (1927) Vol. CLV, pp. 372-381)-The most recent estimate of Webster's character and achievements; interesting but unimportant.
139
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHADWICK, FRENCH ENSOR .- Causes of the Civil War, 1859-1861 (N. Y .. , Harper, 1906)-A thoroughly readable discussion of a difficult subject. CHOATE, RUFUS .- A Discourse Delivered before the Faculty, Students, and Alumni of Dartmouth College, July 27, 1853 (Boston, Munroe, 1853) -Perhaps the finest tribute ever paid to Webster's personality and ability.
CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR .- Life of Daniel Webster (2 vols., N. Y., Apple- ton, 1870)-The authorized biography, undistinguished in style, but well-documented and indispensable to any student of Webster.
CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR .- The Last Years of Daniel Webster (N. Y., Appleton, 1878)-An authoritative statement prepared in reply to cer- tain scandalous charges against Webster.
DARTMOUTH, COLLEGE .- The Proceedings of the Webster Centennial. The Commemoration by Dartmouth College of the Services of Daniel Web- ster to the College and the State. Held upon the Occasion of the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Graduation of Mr. Webster (Hanover, Dartmouth College, 1902)-Edited by E. M. Hopkins. This contains full reports of the speeches made, and includes some new material.
EVERETT, EDWARD .- "Biographical Memorial of the Public Life of Daniel Webster" (In DANIEL WEBSTER, Writings and Speeches, 18 vols., Little, Brown, 1903)-See Vol. I, pp. 1-175.
FISHER, SYDNEY GEORGE .- The True Daniel Webster-(Phil., Lippincott, 1911)-A very sensible and intelligent estimate of Webster.
FISKE, JOHN .- Essays, Historical and Literary (2 vols., N. Y., Macmillan, 1902)-See Vol. I, pp. 363-409, "Daniel Webster and the Sentiment of Union." A fair analysis of Webster's views and influence.
FOSTER, HERBERT DARLING .- "Webster's Seventh of March Speech and the Secession Movement, 1850" (American Historical Review (1921- 1922) Vol. XXVII, pp. 245-270)-Perhaps the best short discussion of this topic.
FOSTER, HERBERT D .- Webster and Choate in College (In the Dartmouth Alumni Magazine, April and May, 1927)-Two highly important arti- cles containing the results of some recent investigations by a Dart- mouth teacher.
FUESS, CLAUDE MOORE .- The Life of Caleb Cushing (N. Y., Harcourt, Brace, 1923)-Contains some hitherto unpublished correspondence be- tween Webster and Cushing.
FUESS, CLAUDE MOORE .- Rufus Choate, the Wizard of the Law (New York, Minton, 1928)-The most recent study of the relations between Webster and Choate.
HAPGOOD, NORMAN .- Daniel Webster (Boston, Small, Maynard, 1899)- A study of Webster by a well-known journalist.
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL .- Slavery and Abolition, 1831-1841 (N. Y., Harper, 1906)-Probably the best existing discussion of this very complicated subject.
HARVEY, PETER .- Reminiscences and Anecdotes of Daniel Webster (Bos- ton, Little, Brown, 1877)-A somewhat inchoate collection of stories about Webster, many of them new and unpublished. An important book.
HOAR, GEORGE FRISBIE .- Autobiography of Seventy Years (2 vols., N. Y., Scribner, 1903)-A delightful book of reminiscences, with many re- ferences to Webster, especially in Vol. I, 133-152.
KENNEDY, ELIJAH ROBINSON .- The Real Daniel Webster (N. Y., Revell, 1924)-The most recent of the long biographies, summing up the judg- ments of earlier critics. It contains an excellent bibliography.
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140
DANIEL WEBSTER, STATESMAN
KNAPP, SAMUEL LORENZO .- A Memoir of the Life of Daniel Webster (Boston, Stimpson & Clapp, 1831)-Interesting as being the first pub- lished biography of Webster, prepared and printed during the excite- ment following the Reply to Hayne.
LANMAN, CHARLES .- The Private Life of Daniel Webster (N. Y., Harper, 1852)-Published soon after Webster's death by his private secretary. Interesting, but far from reliable.
LODGE, HENRY CABOT .- Daniel Webster (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin, 1911- A readable but prejudiced biography which must be used with dis- cretion.
LODGE, HENRY CABOT .- Daniel Webster (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1911)- ture, (4 vols., N. Y., Putnam, 1917-1921)-See Vol: II, pp. 92-103. An adequate discussion of Webster's place in our literature. A com- plete bibliography, prepared by Mark Van Doren, is to be found in the same volume, pp. 480-488.
LYMAN, SAMUEL P .- Life and Memorials of Daniel Webster (2 vols., N. Y., Appleton, 1853)-Prepared and published hastily after Web- ster's death.
MCCALL, SAMUEL WALKER .- Daniel Webster (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1902)-The published form of an address delivered in 1901 at the centennial of Webster's graduation from Dartmouth. A very stimu- lating short essay.
McMASTER, JOHN BACH .- Daniel Webster (New York, Century, 1902)- A competent but undistinguished biography by a great American his- torian.
MACY, JESSE .- The Anti-Slavery Crusade (New Haven, Yale Univ. Press, 1919)-A well-written and judicious treatment of the controversy.
MARCH, CHARLES WAINWRIGHT .- Daniel Webster and His Contemporaries (N. Y., Baker and Scribner, 1850)-Originally published in 1850, and reprinted in 1852 as a campaign biography.
OGG, FREDERICK AUSTIN .- Daniel Webster (Phil., Jacobs, 1914)-An ex- cellent biography, which, however, contributes nothing new to the subject.
PARKER, THEODORE .- A Discourse Occasioned by the Death of Daniel Webster, Preached at the Melodeon, on Sunday, October 31, 1852 (Bos- ton, Mussey, 1853)-Probably the most bitter of the Abolitionist attacks upon Webster's motives in the Seventh of March Speech.
PILLSBURY, ALBERT ENOCH .- Daniel Webster, the orator; an Address De- livered before the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and the New England Society of Brooklyn (Privately printed, 1903)-A good analysis of Webster's methods as a speaker.
SCHMUCKER, SAMUEL MOSHEIM .- Life of Daniel Webster (N. Y., Burt, 1905)-This adds nothing new to the information already accumulated. SCHURZ, CARL .- The Life of Henry Clay (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1915) -One of the most satisfactory of American biographies.
SMITH, THEODORE CLARKE .- Parties and Slavery 1850-1859 (N. Y., Harper 1906)-A very stimulating discussion of the subject, with many re- ferences to Webster.
TODD, WILLIAM CLEAVES .- Biographical and Other Articles (Boston, Lee, Shepard, 1901)-See pp. 11-33, "Daniel Webster," a gossipy essay, containing a few new stories.
WARREN, CHARLES .- The Supreme Court in United States History (3 vols., Boston, Little, Brown, 1922)-The most important work on the subject. WEBSTER, DANIEL .- The Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster (18 vols., Boston, Little, Brown, 1906)-Edited by J. W. McIntyre. Na- tional edition. This the most recent and complete collection of Web-
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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
ster's writings, is known as the National Edition, and supersedes everything of the sort which preceded it. Everett's Memoir is in- cluded.
WEBSTER, DANIEL .- The Private Correspondence of Daniel Webster (2 vols., Boston, Little, Brown, 1857)-Edited by Fletcher Webster. An indispensable collection of letters.
WEBSTER HISTORICAL SOCIETY .- The Webster Centennial (Boston, 1883)- An account of several celebrations, held in 1882, of the 100th anniver- sary of Webster's birth.
WHEELER, EVERETT PEPPERELL .- "Daniel Webster" (William Draper Lewis. -Great American Lawyers. The Lives and Influence of Judges and Lawyers Who Have Acquired Permanent National Reputation, and Have Developed the Jurisprudence of the United States. A History of the Legal Profession in America. (8 vols., Phila., Winston, 1907- 1909)-See Vol. III, pp. 187-330.
WHEELER, EVERETT PEPPERRELL .- Daniel Webster, The Expounder of the Constitution (New York, Putnam's, 1905)-A discussion of fifty-four important cases in which Webster dealt with constitutional matters.
WHIPPLE, EDWIN PERCY .- Essays and Reviews (2 vols., N. Y., 1848)-See Vol. I, pp. 164-197, "Daniel Webster," a clever and critical analysis of Webster's style.
WILKINSON, WILLIAM CLEAVES .- Daniel Webster, a Vindication; with other Historical Essays (N. Y., Funk & Wagnalls, 1911)-A justifi- cation by a well-known admirer of Webster, of the latter's attitude in the Seventh of March Speech.
CHAPTER V
THE IMMIGRANTS (1830-1929)
BY MRS. NATHANIEL THAYER Director, Division of Immigration and Americanization, Commonwealth of Massachusetts
COLONIAL IMMIGRATION
The history of immigration in Massachusetts is a curious one and unique in comparison with other States; for, while the State now has the second largest foreign-born population in the Union in proportion to its population, it was the last to welcome the immigrant and clung tenaciously for many years to the belief that it could keep its people substantially of English extraction.
Massachusetts, as a colony, was not favorable to immigra- tion. While the Dutch, Scandinavians, Swiss, Germans and French were settling the central and southern colonies, Massa- chusetts strove by means of rigid legislation to restrict immi- gration and keep the colony a Puritan commonwealth. In 1637, the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony ordered that no town or person in the Colony should receive or entertain any newcomer for longer than three weeks with- out permission of the authorities. Severe laws with penalties of whippings, imprisonment, and banishment were aimed to prohibit the coming to the Colony of Quakers and non- Protestant immigrants from Great Britain and western Europe. In 1682, the Colony granted land and special privi- leges to a group of French Huguenot refugees. These people made acceptable material for citizenship; and in 1730, because of their good behavior, they were naturalized by a special legislative act. Such procedure was unusual, as the general policy of the Colony was strictly opposed to immigration. In 1720 the General Court of the Colony resolved : "Whereas, it
142
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143
COLONIAL IMMIGRATION
appears that certain families recently arrived from Ireland, . . . have presumed to make a settlement . . . that the said people be warned to move off within the space of seven months, and if they fail to do so, that they may be prosecuted by the attorney general by writs of trespass and ejectment."
From the beginning of the Colony there was much fear, evidenced by legislation, of the immigration of paupers. In 1700 a law was passed providing that "no lame, impotent or infirm persons" be admitted to the Colony unless under bond, with a penalty of deportation if security was lacking. Similar colonial statutes regulated immigration into the Colony in the decades prior to Independence.
Partially because of these stringent immigration measures, but also because of the climatic conditions, Massachusetts entered the Union in 1788 as a commonwealth of almost entirely British stock, her racial make-up being more homo- geneous than any other of the original thirteen states.
In 1790, according to A Century of Population Growth 1790-1900, published by the United States Bureau of the Census in 1909, the nationality of the white population of Massachusetts was as follows:
English
354,528
Scotch
13,435
Irish
3,732
French
746
Dutch
373
German
.
75
Jewish
67
All others
231
Total
373,187
REGULATION PRIOR TO FEDERAL ACTION (1789-1872)
In the nine and a half decades that preceded the passage of the Federal immigration laws, immigration to Massachusetts was regulated only by State laws. The colonial legislation was replaced by an act of 1837, which authorized public officers to examine the condition of alien passengers entering ports and to require bonds of indemnity against such passen-
144
THE IMMIGRANTS
gers becoming a public charge within ten years, to collect a tax of $2.00 for each passenger landing, and to compel pilots to anchor vessels at places appointed. Successive acts, in the years 1840, 1843, 1848, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1865, 1866, 1869, 1870, and 1872, made further regulations concerning the admission of newcomers.
In 1849, the United States Supreme Court ruled that State laws regulating immigration and prescribing a head tax were unconstitutional, as being a regulation of foreign commerce. Hence Massachusetts and New York, the two States that had endeavored to regulate immigration, were forced to cease this supervision. From 1850 until 1882, when the first compre- hensive Federal immigration legislation was passed, there was little if any regulation of immigration by any State. Massa- chusetts, like New York, has always been a gateway of immi- gration. Naturally, the problem of the incoming stranger has been viewed with varying attitudes of mind. Apprehension of the danger of assimilation of immigrants unequipped with material goods and alien in religion and outlook, seems to have been the predominating viewpoint. In 1856, an act was passed to create a board of commissioners on alien passengers and State paupers.
IMMIGRATION OF PAUPERS
The problem for caring for immigrant paupers was undoubtedly a severe one. It had become a practice for certain districts in England, Ireland, and Scotland to furnish free transportation to paupers in their respective parishes. Such poor persons were often sent by way of Canada, to avoid inspection at the border ports of New York and Boston and also to avoid the head tax and bond. These newcomers commonly did not remain in the Canadian Provinces, how- ever, but entered by land and settled, usually at the com- munity's expense, within the United States. Massachusetts, because of her proximity to Canada, suffered much from such practices. The following extract from the 1835 Report of Artemas Simonds on Almshouses and Kindred Institutions in Several of the North and Central States shows the situation : "As nearly as can be ascertained, the number of persons sup-
145
NATIONAL REPRESENTATION
ported for longer or shorter periods of time, in the year 1834, in the almshouses of the four principal American cities were as follows :
Americans Foreigners
New York
1893
2093
Philadelphia
1676
1895
Baltimore
675
479
Boston
542
841
"It is thus seen that Boston is more burdened by poor emigrants than any other Atlantic city, in proportion to population. ... The bulk of these foreigners are from Great Britain; in Philadelphia and Baltimore a small proportion are Germans." It was unnecessary for the British Poor Law Commissioners of 1833 to recommend "that parishes be author- ized to pay the passages of paupers out of the country." Such was already extensively the practice. Capt. John S. Davis of Portsmouth, N. H., a respectable and intelligent shipmaster, states that in May, 1829, he was in London where he saw in the North American Hotel, two English gentlemen who stated that they were Wardens of a parish; that they had procured the passage to New York of about thirty of their parish paupers, had persuaded them to go, clothed them, paid their passage money, and made them up a small purse. They further remarked that this was the most economical disposi- tion that they could make of their poor. At that time, says Capt. Davis, the exportation of parish paupers had become in England a well-known and regular business, and certain American vessels were called the "Workhouse Line."
Practically all the immigrants coming in the years from 1850 to 1890 were attracted by the industrial opportunities of the State. It was a period of industrial expansion. The mills eagerly accepted workers from the British Isles and Canada and, as expansion further indicated the need of addi- tional workers, sought them from southern and southeastern Europe.
NATIONAL REPRESENTATION (1850-1890)
The classification according to nationality is not available from the census records before 1850. In the decades begin-
146
THE IMMIGRANTS
ning with 1850 and extending through 1890, the period of pre-Federal immigration regulation, the figures are not avail- able showing the numbers of immigrants according to the country of origin ; but the census figures indicate that those of Irish birth continued to predominate in the foreign-born popu- lation of the State. They rank first in numbers for each census as follows :
1850.
115,917 1860.
185,434
1870. .216,120
1880
225,700
1890 259,902
This last figure is the highest recorded for that nationality to date, the number decreasing every subsequent decade to the present time.
Another group which shows an interesting growth is the Canadian. No separate figures were recorded for the Cana- dian French prior to 1890, when those of that extraction totaled 96,286. The total Canadian residents in the State, ex- cluding French Canadians, from 1850 on are as follows :
1850
15,029
1860
27,069
1870 70,580
1880
119,302
1890. .115,029
The immigrants born in England show in this period a striking increase :
1850. 16,685 1860. 23,848
1870 34,099 1880.
47,263
1890. 76,400
The last figure is almost five times the number in 1850. The Scotch, too, show a steady growth;
1850. 4,469
1860 6,855
147
NATIONAL REPRESENTATION
1870
9,003
1880.
12,507
1890.
21,909
Of the non-English-speaking groups, the first to show a decisive gain were the Germans:
1850
4,417
1860
9,961
1870
13,072
1880
16,872
1890
28,034
From small beginnings in 1850, the Scandinavian countries of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark grew as follows:
1850
503
1860
1,069
1870
1,955
1880
5,971
1890
22,655
The growth of the French group showed a small increase :
1850
805
1860
1,280
1870
1,629
1880
2,212
1890
3,273
From these figures it is clear that the foreign nationals showing important gains in the years prior to 1890 were either English speaking or from northern Europe. Of southern European countries, the first to show a decided increase was Italy. Census returns recorded :
1850. 196
1860
371
1870
454
1880
2,116
1890
8,066
For Portugal the figures were :
1850 290
1860 988
148
THE IMMIGRANTS
1870
735
1880
1,161
1890
3,051
IMMIGRATION AFTER FEDERAL ACTION (1890-1914)
State legislation continued after a Federal system of restric- tion was inaugurated in connection with Federal statutes and supervision. In 1883, the General Court passed a resolution authorizing an agreement relating to immigration entered into by the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States and the State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity. In 1892, a second resolution authorized an investigation of immigration into the Commonwealth of criminals and paupers. The problem of pauperism, insanity, and health as it relates to the immigrant is quite evidently not a recent development of the immigration question.
The problems confronting the newly arrived immigrant in the days of mass immigration are too lengthy to enumerate here and not particularly inherent to his arrival in Massachu- setts. Since Massachusetts has always been an immigration State and Boston has been usually second in importance as an entrance port to the United States, the problem became an important one and aroused the thoughtful consideration of serious-minded persons.
Perhaps the first serious consideration of the matter de- veloped as a result of a conference held at New York by the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Association in February, 1907. Following this conference the North American Civic League for Immigrants was organized. Boston was selected as headquarters for the society. The conclusions of the league from its investigations were: (1) since 1880 the immigrants entering the United States had come largely from Italy, the east of Europe, and Asia; (2) seventy per cent remained in New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; (3) the majority of the newcomers did not learn English; (4) few tried to learn English.
The Civic League began work on a solution of the problems presented, and during the mass immigration did valiant work in awakening public opinion to the seriousness of the question,
149
NUMBERS AND RACES
besides doing much to alleviate the immediate needs of the immigrant.
NUMBERS AND RACES (1907-1914)
With the opening of serious Federal regulation of immigra- tion in 1892 came the flood tide of the immigration stream. A number of factors, both here and abroad, combined to make an immigration increase to the United States, and Mass- achusetts participated.
In 1907 1,285,349 immigrants came to the United States, the largest number that had ever arrived in any one year. This figure was not equalled again until 1914. Since the World War, conditions both abroad and here have never al- lowed such an influx. With our present immigration laws it is exceedingly unlikely if such large numbers will ever again be allowed to enter. It is interesting to note that the number allowed to enter the United States in the immigration year closing June 30, 1926 was 304,488. To parallel it in size we must go back to 1899. In the year closing June 30, 1929, there were admitted 279,678 immigrant aliens, the smallest num- ber to come in any year since 1899 except in the years 1918 and 1919.
In 1907, the year when immigration was at full tide, Massa- chusetts received 85,583 immigrants. Only two other years brought larger numbers; 1913 with 101,674 and 1914 with 93,200. Aside from the vast numbers of the newcomers, a change was apparent in the racial make-up of the influx. The numbers from northern Europe and Great Britain decreased, and those coming from southern Europe increased by leaps and bounds. This added to the problem of assimilation the serious difficulties of diversity of language, strangeness of customs and lack of sympathy with American ideals of government. Prior to 1883 about ninety-five per cent of the immigrants came from England, Scotland, Wales, Belgium, France, Den- mark, Norway, The Netherlands, and Sweden. In 1907 at least eighty-one per cent came from Austria-Hungary, Bul- garia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Poland, Roumania, Russia, Servia, Spain, Syria, and Turkey.
150
THE IMMIGRANTS
GOVERNMENT INVESTIGATIONS (1912-1919)
The difficulties encountered by the individual immigrant, and by the State and the community which endeavored to assimilate him, reached proportions sufficiently great to de- mand attention from the national government. A Federal Immigration Commission in 1907 headed by Senator Dilling- ham, made an exhaustive and nation-wide survey of the immi- gration question, with a view to progressive legislation. The commission's investigations included all phases of the prob- lems of the immigrant. Needless to say, Massachusetts was visited and surveyed. Perhaps some of the best and most scientific studies of the immigration problem as it exists in the Commonwealth are contained in the forty-two volumes of the monster report.
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