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CHAPTER XIII
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE (1820-1889) BY ARTHUR W. GILBERT State Commissioner of Agriculture
PRIME CONDITIONS
The period from 1820 to 1889 evidences a real awakening of scientific agriculture in Massachusetts. It was during this period that the farmers slowly but definitely realized the value of agricultural education. They became convinced that no more in the cultivation of the soil and in the breeding of farm animals than in any other pursuit can "the blind lead the blind" with an unfaltering step toward a progressive objective.
Knowledge of correct agricultural practices was proved to be an economic asset and the probable factor influencing a successful financial season. It was during the development of this period that the agricultural population learned that pro- gressive farming was not a development resulting from in- stinct or heredity but a process of growth requiring careful observation, patient study and a practical common-sense test- ing of scientific principles. Men drifted away from the old idea that the son must farm as the father and the grandfather, as they realized that reason, knowledge and invention have as wide a field in agriculture as in any other life work.
Full allowance, however, must be made for the difficulties that surrounded the agricultural activities of the early settlers of Massachusetts. They exchanged a land probably more advanced in European civilization than any other for one entirely new to them, with a climate and soil unlike any that they had ever known before. Their previous experience
372
373
EVOLUTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS
afforded them little or no aid in a wilderness that must be subdued by their own hands in the midst of a thousand obsta- cles. The system of cultivation that they had learned and practised in the mother country would not serve them here. They must start anew, and acquire through diligent toil knowl- edge applicable to the new problems. It is, therefore, little wonder that their progress was slow; in fact the greater wonder is that they advanced at all, that they did not perish in the wilderness amid the privations and sufferings of long winters and the perils resulting from frequent outbreaks of unfriendly Indians.
These sturdy pioneer settlers, with inferior animals and rude implements, started the great agricultural industry of Massa- chusetts upon the basic principles of industry and frugality. They passed on to future generations the virtues of perse- verance, integrity, fortitude, Christian charity, and a love of independence, all of which have been instrumental in molding and shaping the progress of agriculture in the nineteenth century.
A detailed analysis of the progressive features of the agri- cultural development during the period of 1820 to 1889 naturally must include such important factors as the evolution of farm implements and machinery, live-stock improvement and crop production, progress in the dairy industry, develop- ment of agricultural societies, organization of the State Board of Agriculture, agricultural education, the effective work of the State Experiment Station, the important function of the Cattle Commission, and the general improvement in farm liv- ing conditions.
EVOLUTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the American farmer used a type of plow made mostly of wood, perhaps utilizing the natural twist found in the trunk of some tree, and a moldboard. The local wheelwright assisted him in the wood- work construction, and the blacksmith furnished a steel point and in some cases armor plate for the landside and moldboard. The farmer also had a spike-tooth harrow, made with straight
4
374
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE
teeth, forged by the local blacksmith, in a wooden frame. The scythe, sickle, hand rake, and possibly a larger rake known as a bull rake, were the implements used for harvesting.
The evolution of the plow has been especially significant in view of the basic importance attached to the development of this implement. It is reported that in 1819 Jethro Wood, of Scipio, New York, obtained a patent on a plow made of iron, with the different parts cast separately. This invention caused a new era in the history of the plow. It resulted in a period of manufacturing as distinguished from the period of building in small quantities by blacksmiths or plowwrights, and further, by making it possible for the farmer to replace a broken or worn-out casting with a new one from the factory.
Frederick Holbrook, Professor of Agriculture at Cornell University and later war governor of Vermont, invented certain improvements to the plow during the years from 1850 to 1860. He constructed plows with different moldboards adapted to various conditions of soil, and brought out the sod and subsoil and swivel plows. Later inventions which tended to perfect processes of chilling and toughening iron to make it suitable for moldboards, and the process of making steel, revolutionized the plow-making industry in that cast iron was practically eliminated from this field. The first developments of the sulky plow were also made during the period from 1820 to 1889, and the use of wheels on this type of plow permitted a more uniform depth and width of the furrow and allowed the plowman to ride.
The earliest form of the harrow used in this country was undoubtedly the spike-tooth, fastened in an A-shaped or square wooden frame. Disc harrows came into prevalent use during the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
IMPROVED MACHINERY
Drills and planters came into use during the last half of the nineteenth century. Charles W. Billings, of South Deerfield, Mass., invented a corn planter about 1850 and a few years later S. E. Harrington, of North Amherst, Mass., invented a drill for sowing onion and other small seeds. Early types of
I
From George B. Emerson, Manual for the Schools AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS OF 1862
375
CATTLE AND HORSES
these inventions were faulty in that they offered little oppor- tunity of adjustment for different-sized seeds of the same variety. The cutting of grass and grain by machinery was thought of in England during the eighteenth century. In this country the inventions of Obed Hussey in 1833 and of Cyrus H. McCormick in 1834 first introduced the efficient form of cutting bar with vibrating sections passing through guides or fingers, as is now common in harvesting machines. De- velopments of the mowing machines and harvesting machines were very rapid during the latter part of the nineteenth cen- tury, and the general use of this type of labor and time-saving machinery in Massachusetts much increased the productive capacity of the individual farmer. In 1890 a great amount of the farm work, previously done by hand, involving much manual labor, was accomplished with greater efficiency and in much less time by the use of improved farm machinery. Every machine in use during the latter part of the period from 1820 to 1889 represented a number of successive inventions. In fact, it was a period of great evolution of farm implements and machinery. It is difficult to imagine what would have been the condition if only the types of machines in use at the beginning of the nineteenth century had been in operation at its close.
It is important to mention, however, that the arrangement of fields in many New England farms was not as favorable to the use of machinery as might be desired. One continuous field of considerable size can be cultivated much more cheaply than two separate fields of the same combined area. In this respect the farmers of the West enjoyed an advantage in that the natural conformation of the land was adapted to the use of labor-saving machinery. Nevertheless the farmers of New England found it convenient to cooperate in the ownership and use of expensive farm machinery.
CATTLE AND HORSES (1840-1874)
Concurrent with the evolution of the farmers' implements, a very marked change took place in the character and number of farm animals; and coincident with the improvement in the
376
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE
farmers' "weapons of production" and the development of steam transportation facilities, a very noticeable change occurred in farm management, involving, as it must, all phases of crop production.
In 1840 there were enumerated in the State of Massa- chusetts 282,574 head of neat cattle valued at $5,439,549, while in 1880 the neat cattle numbered only 261,121 : a falling off of over 21,000 from the number in 1840, but considered worth $6,637,297. This was a result of the introduction of the best English breeds by the Massachusetts Society for the Pro- motion of Agriculture, of importations by some of the far- sighted individual farmers in the Commonwealth, and of the readiness and good judgment of the farmers in using the im- ported stock for the improvement of herds of native cows. The exclusion of grade bulls from competing at county shows, by the State Board of Agriculture, undoubtedly had much in- fluence in advancing the quality of Massachusetts cattle during this period. In 1820 not a Jersey was recorded in the State; there were no pure-bred Devons or Herefords. A few Ayr- shires and Durham Shorthorns were being tested to determine whether or not they could endure the rigor of the Massachu- setts climate and prove desirable for dairy purposes. Impor- tations of well-bred bulls and cows from the best herds of England started the development of numerous Shorthorn herds, to such an extent that it was quite rare during the latter part of the nineteenth century to find a "native" on any of the progressive farms.
During the last half of the nineteenth century the western cattle-producing States took over the eastern markets for beef and beef products. It was only natural that this development should take place, in view of the greater facilities for carrying on the production of beef cattle in the western States, and the further fact that refrigerator cars made it possible to carry the heavy western beef to the eastern consumer in good con- dition.
The working oxen in 1880 numbered only 14,571 as against 46,611 in 1850; the ox as a steady force was superseded by the horse. Working horses in 1850 numbered 42,216, and
377
LIVE STOCK AND POULTRY
59,629 in 1880. During this period considerable progress was made in breeding horses to Morgan stock. The draft horses also were improved by infusion of Percheron blood imported by the Massachusetts Society, and also by Clydesdales and Normans which came to Massachusetts from Canada and the West.
SHEEP, SWINE AND POULTRY
The sheep industry suffered a very serious falling off. In 1838, 384,614 sheep sheared 1,056,327 pounds of wool; in 1875, 58,773 sheep sheared 206,935 pounds of wool. This diminution was mostly among the Saxonys and Merinos. It became very difficult to compete with the West and South in raising sheep and growing fine wool at a profit. Hence the farmers sold their flocks of Merinos and never replaced them. The destruction of sheep by dogs was an economic factor in the decline of the sheep industry. Notwithstanding the great decrease in the number of sheep, the average value of sheep increased considerably.
Toward the end of this period came a trebled increase in the value of the sheep, and a double increase in the weight of the fleece, while the lambs raised were a third more in number and each was worth three or four times as much as in 1840. This improvement resulted from making mutton and lamb of pri- mary consideration and wool secondary. The wool raised in 1880 was medium, combing, and coarse, and could be pro- duced from larger and more profitable sheep.
Swine decreased in numbers from 104,740 in 1845 to 41,255 hogs and 41,009 pigs in 1875; but the total value increased by $45,886. During this period little attention was paid to the breeding of hogs for fine points. The Berkshire hog was introduced in 1832, but for a time fell into disfavor, although during the last quarter of the nineteenth century they ap- parently returned to prominence and were greatly improved. In 1844 the Suffolks were introduced and had material in- fluence in improving the larger breeds of pigs in this State. Since then, the Chester Whites, Poland Chinas and the York- shires have been added.
A great advance was made in poultry raising during the
378
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE
last half of the nineteenth century. It is estimated that the value of poultry and eggs in 1840 was approximately $178,- 000; and the total value of poultry products in 1875 was $1,789,000. It would appear that the business of poultry farm- ing became greatly systematized during this period. The majority of pioneer farmers were raising as a side line the common dunghill fowls, and permitted them to lay their eggs wherever they chose, relying upon the sagacity and self- interest of the farmers' children to find the hidden nests.
By 1875, more careful attention was given to the breeding of poultry and to well-constructed houses. The manure was more carefully preserved for its fertilizing value. Pure-bred chickens were raised, and brought more quickly to maturity, and were cared for by proper feeding and housing.
CROPS
Each farm during the earlier period of agricultural develop- ment in Massachusetts was more or less a self-sufficient unit. However, a period of specialization in crop management be- came evident during the latter part of the nineteenth century, and crops that did not show a satisfactory profit were dis- carded. This process was accompanied by a much greater crop diversification.
The Middle West states quickly demonstrated natural facilities for growing grain. The virgin soil of these great plain States with its abundance of plant food, the comparative cheapness of this land to the early settlers, and its adaptability to the use of the new machinery were important factors in decreased cost of production which permitted the farming interests of the Middle West to undersell our Massachusetts producers. The advent of improved steam transportation from this section of the country to New England permitted easy access on our Massachusetts markets of grain crops grown more economically in other States, and eventually caused our farmers to concentrate upon those phases of agri- culture that allowed a greater profit and required the minimum amount of labor and attention to produce successfully.
STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 379
STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS (1845-1875)
A census of Massachusetts agriculture, covering a period of thirty years, was prepared by Col. Carroll D. Wright in 1875 :
Products.
1845
1855
1865
1875
Apples :
Bushels
Total value
$1,121,262
$1,244,420
3,252,957 $1,450,252
Value per bushel
$0.45
Beans:
Bushels
. .
.
.. .
6,3891/2 $22,468
41,879
Total value
....
$3.52
$2.32
Acreage
.....
.....
1491/2
1,3541/8
Bu. per acre
. . . . .
. .. . . .
423/4
31
Beets :
Bushels
Total value
. .
..
. ....
133,589 $117,161
237,880 $116,091 $0.49
Acreage
690
9747/8
Bu. per acre
1931/2
2445/8
Cabbage:
Heads
Total value
$184,869
7,660,722 $440,691 $0.06
Carrots:
Bushels
632,117
225,015 $105,695
$86,503
Value per bu. . .
$0.23
$0.47
$0.45
Acreage
1,4797/8
6233/4
4391/4
Bu. per acre
4271/8
3603/4
436
Celery :
Bunches
627,329
Total value
$2,750
$49,614
Value per bunch
$0.08
Cranberries :
Bushels
34,621
110,184
Total value
$135,200
$101,538
$288,113
Value per bu. .
$2.93
$2.61
Cucumbers :
Bushels
1,000
38,236
Total value
$43,844
Value per bu.
$1.15
Number
... .
....
2,365,000
37,414,726
Value per 100. .
$0.30
Total value
.... .
. .. . .
$35,627
$163,334
Lettuce :
Heads
....
.
2,683,211
Total value
.....
$96,410
Value per head.
$0.04
Onions:
Bushels
...
240,971
210,831
359,706
.
. .. . . .
. .
...
.
. .
. .
. .
....
.....
. . . . .
.
.. .
.. .
.
.....
...
....
.
....
191,646
Total value
. . . .
.... .
.... .
......
..
..
.. .
Value per bu.
$0.88
$97,052
Value per bu.
... .
......
....
Value per head.
....
.....
.....
. . .
...
......
. . . . .
.
....
$148,041
380 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE
Products.
1845
Total value
Value per bu. . .
Acreage
.. . .
Bu. per acre
.... .
Parsnips:
Bushels
30,377
Total value
. .. . . .
...
.. .
$24,977
Value per. bu. . .
. . . . .
.....
. . . .
$0.82
Acreage
......
..... .
. . . .. .
1371/4
Bu. per acre
.... .
. .... .
. ... . .
2213/4
Pears:
Bushels
Total value
$88,144
$243,068
59,259 $118,302
Value per bu. . .
$2.00
Potatoes, Irish:
Bushels
4,767,115
3,832,523
3,630,546
Total value
$1,309,030
3,991,456 $2,521,906
$2,499,845
$2,349,815
Value per bushel
$0.27
$0.65
$0.65
Acreage
$0.63 41,9827/8 933/4
42,0823/4 91
33,616
Bu. per acre
108
Pumpkins:
Pounds
4,214,881
Total value
$37,789
Value per İb
$0.009
Squashes :
Pounds
6,978,689
Total value
$96,611
$147,124
Value per İb
$0.02
Strawberries:
Quarts
1,156,801
Total value
$30,728
$214,940
Value per quart
$0.19
Tobacco:
Pounds
265,560
9,306,067
5,993,666
Total value
$16,686
$57,474
$1,577,100
$1,032,262
Value per İb
$0.06
$0.17
$0.17
Acreage
421
5,6157/8
3,7575/8
Pounds per acre
1,657
1,595
Tomatoes :
Bushels
·
.... .
.....
Turnips:
Bushels
523,735
534,096
697,501
Total value
$116,351
$187,913
$252,222
Value per bu.
. .
$0.22
$0.35
$0.36
. .
.
.
.....
. .
.. .
.
...
..
.
..
.. .
. . . . .
230,565 $137,945
Total value
$23,160
Value per bu.
...
..
THE DAIRY INDUSTRY
The extent and importance of the dairy industry in Massa- chusetts during the last part of the nineteenth century is evi- denced by the Census of 1885, in which it is shown that more
.. .
. .
...
.....
.
.. . .
.....
·
.. .
...
1855 $187,446 $0.78 7697/8 313
1865 $322,412 $1.53
1875 $338,205 $0.94
1,045
8391/4 251
3441/4
. . . . .
.
...
.....
$0.60
381
THE DAIRY INDUSTRY
than a quarter of the agricultural products produced in the Commonwealth were dairy products. The value of milk was $10,312,762; butter $2,521,071; cream, $202,706; and cheese, $33,987. The quantity of cheese produced in Massachusetts decreased nearly three fourths from 1875 to 1885. This fact was true as regards the production of cheese under actual farm conditions; but it should be specially noted that during this period a great advance was made in the manufacture of cheese under special factory conditions.
The first cheese factory went into operation in April, 1864. The Massachusetts Cheese Manufacture Association was formed in West Brookfield in 1886, under the auspices of Dwight Ellis of Warren and a few others. By 1869, twenty cheese factories were in successful operation in Massachusetts.
As early as 1880 a very profitable market for fluid milk was developed, and accordingly the production of cheese by the manufacturing interests decreased. It was also unfavorably affected by the competition of Canada and some of the north- ern dairy states.
The year 1885 marks the beginning of the establishment of cooperative creameries or butter factories; and twenty-seven such cooperative creameries were established prior to 1890. The twenty-four of these organizations that reported show a total of 2,193,983 pounds of butter made in 1889, sell- ing at an average price of twenty-six cents per pound. Con- siderable butter was also made during this period by milk contractors from surplus milk. The production of butter on farms decreased in amount because of the creameries, thus evidencing the breaking up of the "self-sufficient farm produc- tion unit."
Most of the surplus milk produced was bought by con- tractors and disposed of in Boston. The milk inspector of Boston reported for the year 1889 an average dairying con- sumption of 207,493 quarts. The quality of milk in Boston as a whole was very good; but more definite and first-hand standards of quality were urged for fluid milk. The statutes of the Commonwealth at that time required that to be of good quality milk must yield on analysis not more than 87% of water fluid in mixture, 13% of milk solids, nor less than
382
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE
9.75% of milk solids, exclusive of fat, except during the months of May and June, when it should not contain less than 12% of milk solids. Thus a sound foundation was estab- lished during the last quarter of the nineteenth century for further improvements in the dairy industry. Even during this period attempts were made to eradicate diseased cattle from the dairy herds. Milk inspectors were appointed in all the large cities, and every effort was made to assure to the people a pure milk supply.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES
The usual organization of an agricultural society was a body of citizens incorporated under the laws of this State for the purpose of promoting useful improvements in agriculture, by holding annual exhibitions at some central point and bring- ing together for these exhibitions livestock and the products of the soil. Contests of skill in certain agricultural operations often added to the interest of these annual fairs. Exhibitions were usually held in the open with very little expense attached to them ; and admission was charged to people not members of the associations, thereby creating a fund which, in addition to the admission fees, assisted the organizations in the later purchase of land and buildings for exhibition and fair pur- poses.
The first of these bodies in Massachusetts was the Massa- chusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, organized at Boston in 1792. At the close of the Revolutionary War, the country was in a somewhat unsettled condition, and agricul- tural interests were slow to recover from the effects of the serious setback occasioned by this war. From 1800 to 1820, the business of the Commonwealth was more prosperous and many new agricultural societies were established. From 1820 to 1844 no new agricultural societies were organized, with the exception of the Bristol County Society in 1823 and the Massa- chusetts Horticultural Society in 1829.
The success that these first agricultural societies had in the life of the community was largely responsible for the organi- zation of many new societies during the last half of the nine-
383
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES
teenth century; and in 1889 there existed thirty-five agricultural societies incorporated by special acts of the legislature and represented on the Board of Agriculture. The names of the representatives from the agricultural societies to the State Board of Agriculture during the year 1889, and the year of organization of the respective societies are indi- cated in the following table:
Society
Incor- porated
Member of State Board of Agriculture
Massachusetts
1792
E. F. Bowditch, Framingham
Berkshire
1811
Alonzo Bradley, Lee
Hampshire
1814
D. A. Horton, Northampton
Essex
1818
Benj. P. Ware, Clifton
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden
1818
Worcester
1818
C. L. Hartshorn, Worcester
Bristol County
1823
N. W. Shaw, North Raynham E. W. Wood, West Newton
Barnstable County
1844
Nathan Edson, Barnstable
Hampden
1844
Geo. S. Taylor, Chicopee Falls
Housatonic
1848
J. H. Rowley, South Egremont J. C. Newhall, Conway
Franklin County
1850
Worcester County West
1851
P. M. Harwood, Barre
Middlesex
1852
Worcester North
1853
Middlesex South
1854
Middlesex North
1855
Worcester South
1855
G. L. Clemence, Southbridge
Eastern Hampden
1856
Wm. Holbrook, M. D., Palmer
Nantucket
1856
Charles W. Gardner, Nantucket
Highland
1859
Hiram Taylor, Middlefield
Martha's Vineyard
1859
N. S. Shaler, Cambridge
Hoosac Valley
1860
S. A. Hickox, South Williams- town
Hingham
1867
Edmund Hersey, Hingham
Marshfield
1867
Geo. J. Peterson, Marshfield
Union
1867
C. B. Hayden, Blandford
Worcester Northwest
1867
Wm. H. Bowker, Boston
Plymouth County
1870
Augustus Pratt, North Middle- borough
Deerfield Valley
1871
J. D. Avery, Buckland
Amesbury and Salisbury
1881
Wm. H. B. Currier, Amesbury
Hillside
1883
Wm. Bancroft, Chesterfield
Blackstone Valley
1884
Valorous Taft, West Upton
Bay State
1886
F. H. Appleton, Peabody
Attleborough
1887
Isaac Alger, Attleborough
Oxford
1888
D. M. Howe, Charlton
Spencer
1888
J. G. Avery, Spencer
F. K. Sheldon, Southampton
Massachusetts Horticultural
1829
W. W. Rawson, Arlington Geo. Cruikshanks, Fitchburg S. B. Bird, Framingham A. C. Varnum, Lowell
It will be noted by reference to the above list that from
384
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURE
1844 to 1889 the number of societies was greatly increased, and they used progressive methods. Much was accomplished by their institution of agricultural fairs, whereby individuals of the town or county brought together their livestock and products of the soil, met and compared them, and suggested improvements. The fair came more and more to assume an educational aspect. It constituted the best type of school, that in which all are teachers and all are learners. An obvious advantage of the fair was that it drew general attention to the products and processes of agriculture. Massachusetts farmers had carried on their labors in comparative privacy : no one supervised them; few were interested in the exact way in which they did their work. A bushel of corn or potatoes brought the same price, no matter by whom raised or how small the crop. On the other hand, the mechanics and merchants of cities and villages were brought into constant comparison with each other, and their daily employment de- pended upon the success with which they met this constant competition.
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