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Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4 | Part 5 | Part 6 | Part 7 | Part 8 | Part 9 | Part 10 | Part 11 | Part 12 | Part 13 | Part 14 | Part 15 | Part 16 | Part 17 | Part 18 | Part 19 | Part 20 | Part 21 | Part 22 | Part 23 | Part 24 | Part 25 | Part 26 | Part 27 | Part 28 | Part 29 | Part 30 | Part 31 | Part 32 | Part 33 | Part 34 | Part 35 | Part 36 | Part 37 | Part 38 | Part 39 | Part 40 | Part 41 | Part 42 | Part 43 | Part 44 | Part 45 | Part 46 | Part 47 | Part 48 | Part 49 | Part 50 | Part 51 | Part 52 | Part 53 | Part 54
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Gc 974.7 F31 Federal Writers' Project New York Panorama
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Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2019
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EW YORK PANORAMA
AMERICAN GUIDE SERIES'
"7
This volume is sponsored by THE GUILDS' COMMITTEE FOR FEDERAL WRITERS' PUBLICATIONS, INC.
FRANKLIN P. ADAMS, President BRUCE BLIVEN, Vice-President MORRIS L. ERNST, Secretary and Treasurer
HERSCHEL BRICKELL ROCKWELL KENT
VAN WYCK BROOKS
ALFRED KREYMBORG
HENRY S. CANBY LOUIS KRONENBERGER
MALCOLM COWLEY BURNS MANTLE
CLIFTON FADIMAN
MARGARET MARSHALL
LEWIS GANNETT BURTON RASCOE
TRAVIS HOKE
RALPH THOMPSON
JAMES WELDON JOHNSON . IRITA VAN DOREN MARK VAN DOREN
Preface
AMERICAN GUID)
this series of articles has
EW YORK PAN orama of the city, as seen In neither does the broad Her tidy and harmonious.
A Comprehensive View of the Me- tropolis, Presented in a Series of Articles Prepared by the Federal Writ- ers' Project of the Works Progress Administration in New York City
917.471 F 31
...
RANDOM HOUSE . NEW YORK . PUBLISHERS
GHT 1938 BY THE GUILDS' MMITTEE FOR FEDERAL WRITERS' PUBLICATIONS, INC.
SECOND PRINTING
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
UNION
TRADES LASTy COUNCI
55
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION
HARRY L. HOPKINS, Administrator ELLEN S. WOODWARD, Assistant Administrator HENRY G. ALSBERG, Director of Federal Writers' Project HARRY L. SHAW, JR., Director, Federal Writers' Project of New York City
Preface
L 482088
IE "panorama" of New York presented in this series of articles has ain qualities in common with an actual panorama of the city, as seen n the crest of one of its giant skyscrapers. In neither does the broad w embrace a compositional pattern that is wholly tidy, and harmonious. hat manifests itself in either case is the more or less fortuitous and pirical result of group activity. And on that account, perhaps, within broader implications of our analogy, the work may be a more faithful fitting reflection of its subject than could be achieved by any rigidly mal treatment.
As prepared by the Federal Writers' Project of New York City, this ume represents the collective labor of many persons-writers, research rkers, editors, supervisors, photographers and others. While naturally king no individual credit for their own part in a cooperative task, they uld be remiss in both courtesy and gratitude if they failed to acknowl- ge the invaluable assistance given them by many persons outside the ject. They are particularly grateful to Hiram Motherwell, Publicity rector of the Welfare Council of New York City, who assembled the a utilized in the article on Social Welfare; and to the following expert sultants in other fields: Frederick L. Ackerman, architect; Franklin P. lams, author and columnist; Brooks Atkinson, drama critic of the New rk Times; Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Director of the Museum of Modern Art; ul F. Brissenden, Assistant Professor of Economics, Columbia Univer- y; Stephen Duggan, Director of the Institute of International Education, c .; Lewis Gannett, literary editor of the New York Herald Tribune; mes Shelley Hamilton, National Board of Review of Motion Pictures ; arles H. Houston, Special Counsel for the National Association for e Advancement of Colored People; James A. Hubert, Executive Director the New York Urban League, Inc .; Vladimir D. Kazakevich, New ork Chapter of the American Institute of Banking; Lawrence J. Keefe, cretary to the Port of New York Authority; Max Lerner, editor of the ation; Audrey McMahon, Assistant to the Director of the Federal Art :oject; Frank Monaghan, Director of Library and Research, New York Torld's Fair, 1939; Lewis Mumford, author and architectural critic; Dan arker, sports editor of the New York Mirror; James Powers, sports edi-
V
vi PREFACE
tor of the New York News; Terry Ramsaye, editor of the Motion Pict. Herald; Carl Randau, President of the Newspaper Guild of New Yo. Rebecca B. Rankin, Librarian of the Municipal Reference Library, N 7 York; Chester A. Reeds, American Museum of Natural History; Les Rosner, Research Director of the American Labor Party of New Y State; Margaret Schlauch, Associate Professor of English, New York U versity; Robert A. Simon, music critic of the New Yorker; Thomas Smith, Jr., Executive Division, Office of the Comptroller, New Yo: Mark Villchur, Chief of the Division of Foreign Language Press, Forei Language Information Service, New York; M. R. Werner, author; Fr eric A. Willis, Assistant to the President, Columbia Broadcasting Syste Inc .; and Carl Zigrosser, art critic. Thanks are due to Joseph Gaer, Ch Field Supervisor of the Federal Writers' Project and Waldo R. Brow Associate Editor of the Washington staff, under whose editorial sup vision this volume was prepared. A word of thanks must also be accord to the publishers for their helpful cooperation and their patient forbe ance in the face of many difficulties.
It should be obvious that, in the discussion of twenty-six widely dive subjects by many different writers, various individual opinions are bou to find expression. These latter are not necessarily the opinions of 1 Works Progress Administration or the sponsors of this book or the c‹ sultants whose names appear above.
The present volume, although complete in itself and sold separate constitutes in effect the general introduction for a detailed guide book New York City, prepared by the Federal Writers' Project, which will a pear at an early date in the same general format and under the sa sponsorship and publishing auspices.
Contents
PAGE
face V
I. THE CONTEMPORARY SCENE
metropolis and Her Children 3
F
II. NATURAL SETTING
bitat Map
20
0
III. HISTORY
ading Post to Cosmopolis 35
IV. NATIONALITIES
tb
w World Symphony 81
V
0
rtrait of Harlem
VI. SPEECH
De Local Vernacular 152
ate ok
VII. LITERATURE 162
Market Place for Words
VIII. ART
Studio and Gallery
181
IX. ARCHITECTURE
icks of the City
202
X. CLASSICAL MUSIC
ogram Notes 231
XI. POPULAR MUSIC 241
blk Tune to Swing
XII. THE THEATER
htrances and Exits 266
vii
Y
L
Y
V. NEGROES 132
viii CONTENTS
XIII. MOTION PICTURES
Pleasures in Palaces
XIV. RADIO
World of Wireless
XV. THE PRESS
Newspaperman's Mecca
XVI. SPORTS
Athletics by Proxy
3
XVII. MARITIME AFFAIRS
Water Gate
XVIII. TRANSPORT
City in Motion
3
XIX. TRADE AND INDUSTRY
World Market Place
XX. LABOR
Mechanics' Bell
3
XXI. CITY PLANNING
The Urban Pattern
3:
XXII. HOUSING
One-third of a City
4.
XXIII. GOVERNMENT
Body Politic
XXIV. SOCIAL WELFARE
Good Samaritan
XXV. EDUCATION
Learning for Life
4.
XXVI. THE WORLD'S FAIR, 1939
Perisphere and Trylon
INDEX
PA
2+
2
3
3
3
4:
48
51
P
Illustrations
FANTASTIC METROPOLIS
between 34 and 35
Manhattan from Rockefeller Center Statue of Abraham de Peyster Fishing Boats in the East River Midtown Manhattan from St. Gabriel's Park Lower Manhattan from the Air
Courtesy of Mclaughlin Aerial Surveys, Inc.
Night View of Lower Manhattan Old and New in Architecture Skyscrapers at Night Rockefeller Center Roof Gardens (with Detail) Courtesy of Rockefeller Center
Trinity Church and Graveyard
HERE NEW YORKERS LIVE between 80 and 81
Old Houses on West Eleventh Street
MacDougal Alley, Greenwich Village
Apartment Buildings on Central Park West
Tenements on East Twenty-First Street
Courtesy of New York City Housing Authority Park Avenue
4 Park Avenue Courtyard
Plaza Group of Residence Hotels
Street in Barren Island, Brooklyn
Street in St. George, Staten Island
Old Residences on Brooklyn Heights Washington Square Courtesy of Federal Art Project
Knickerbocker Village
Sutton Place and Queensboro Bridge
Workers' Cooperative Apartments in the Bronx
WATERBOUND CITY
between 190 and 191
Statue of Liberty from the Battery Manhattan from the Upper Bay
ix
x ILLUSTRATIONS
Upper Bay, with Governors Island and Brooklyn in Background Detail of Brooklyn Bridge Fishing Craft near Brooklyn Bridge Tudor City, Beekman Place and Sutton Place Aerial View of Triborough Bridge
Courtesy of New York Department of Parks Newtown Creek, at Long Island City Courtesy of John Albert
Where the Harlem River Joins the Hudson George Washington Bridge Courtesy of Port of New York Authority Docks on West Side of Lower Manhattan Battery Park, with Governors Island and Brooklyn in Background Erie Basin, South Brooklyn
WHERE NEW YORKERS EAT AND SHOP
between 220 and 2
Promenade Café, Rockefeller Center Courtesy of Promenade Café
Pushcart Market in Mulberry Street West Washington Poultry Market Shopping Crowd at Fifth Avenue and Forty-Second Street Herald Square, Department Store Center
Fruit and Vegetable Stands The Garment Center Fashionable Shops on Fifth Avenue Pushcart Fineries Bargains in Seafood Fulton Fish Market Pretzel Vendor in Union Square Sidewalk Café Courtesy of Chatham Hotel McSorley's Old Ale House
EDUCATION AND SCIENCE between 330 and 3 New York Public Library, Fifth Avenue Entrance Alma Mater, Columbia University Library and Chapel, Columbia University Campus of City College
xí
ILLUSTRATIONS
Brooklyn Botanic Gardens Zoo in Central Park Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center Public School on the East Side Brooklyn Museum, Entrance Hall Courtesy of the Museum Metropolitan Museum of Art, Room in the American Wing Courtesy of the Museum Hayden Planetarium New School for Social Research
W YORKERS RELAX between 376 and 377
Polo Grounds, Home of the New York Giants
Excursion Boats at the Battery
Waiting in Line at Radio City Music Hall
Rainbow Room, R.C.A. Building, Rockefeller Center
Skating in Sunken Plaza, Rockefeller Center
Broadway at Night Prospect Park, Brooklyn Hamilton Fish Municipal Pool acob Riis Beach
Courtesy of New York Department of Docks
avan Theater, Staten Island, and Detail of Spectators Courtesy of Federal Theater Project
'Jam Session" Night Club Dance Courtesy of Stork Club
EW YORKERS IN TRANSIT between 422 and 423
Grand Central Terminal
Courtesy of New York Central System
Subway Entrances at Wall and William Streets 'El" Station at Hanover Square Courtesy of Federal Art Project Crowded Subway Platform S.S. Normandie in New York Harbor Steamer Docks in the North (Hudson ) River West Side Express Highway
d
1
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
Traffic at Columbus Circle
Train Shed at Pennsylvania Station Motor Traffic on Fifth Avenue Staten Island Ferry
Courtesy of New York Department of Docks Traffic in Times Square "Subway" Platforms in Brooklyn
ART IN NEW YORK
between 468 and 4
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Roman Court Courtesy of the Museum
The Cloisters, Fort Tryon Park Metropolitan Museum Courtesy of the Museum
Machine Art and Modern Murals at the Museum of Modern Art Courtesy of the Museum
Whitney Museum of American Art, Gallery and Sculpture Court Courtesy of the Museum
Wax Dioramas in the Museum of the City of New York Courtesy of the Museum
Museum of the City of New York, Entrance Hall Courtesy of the Museum
Hispanic Society of America, and Court of Its Museum Courtesy of the Society
Brooklyn Museum Courtesy of the Museum
National Academy of Design
Federal Art Project Class, Leonardo da Vinci School
Outdoor Sculpture Exhibit on Park Avenue
Unless otherwise indicated, all the photographs reproduced in this bo are by staff photographers of the Federal Writers' Project.
1
NEW YORK PANORAMA
AMERICAN GUIDE SERIES .
CONTEMPORARY SCENE
Metropolis and Her Children
IE RUMOR of a great city goes out beyond its borders, to all the latitudes the known earth. The city becomes an emblem in remote minds; apart m the tangible export of goods and men, it exerts its cultural instru- Intality in a thousand phases: as an image of glittering light, as the cing ground which creates a new prose style or a new agro-biological Fory, or as the germinal point for a fresh technique in metal sculpture, metrics or the fixation of nitrogen. Its less ponderable influence may be complex of inextricable ideas, economic exchanges, associations, arti- ts: the flask of perfume which brings Fifth Avenue to a hacienda in the gentine, the stencil marks on a packing case dumped on the wharf at tira or Reykjavik, a flurry of dark-goggled globe-trotters from a cruise p, a book of verse
Under the stone I saw them flow express Times Square at five o'clock eyes set in darkness
id in a sheepherder's hut in New South Wales, or a Harlem band play- ; Young Woman's Blues from a phonograph as the safari breaks camp Tanganyika under a tile-blue morning sky as intensely lighted as the norama closed by mountains in the ceiling dome of the African section the American Museum of Natural History.
The orbit of such a world city as New York also intersects the orbits of her world cities. New York, London, Tokyo, Rome exchange preferred ocks and bullion, ships' manifests and radio programs-in rivalry or :11-calculated friendship. During the 1920's, for example, a jump spark ackled between New York and Paris. The art of Matisse, Derain, Picasso (mmanded the Fifty-Seventh Street market. The French developed a taste r le jazz and le sport; in an atmosphere of war debts and the Young an, the Americanization of Europe was mentioned. Paris, capital of the
3
.
4
CONTEMPORARY SCENE
Valutaschweine, became the bourne of good and gay New Yorkers, implicit heroine of a comedy by Philip Barry or a novel by Ernest He ingway. The French replied, though not always in kind. Georges Du mel pronounced a jeremiad against the machine apocalypse in Amer and Paul Morand, an amateur of violence, explored the sensational versity of New York. These were symptomatic. The comments of Ju Romains went deeper and established fixed points for contrast with a la period.
All the rays of force alive in the modern world move inward upon 1 city, and the burning glass of its attraction concentrates them in the fla that is New York. Historically, it has been to an exceptional degree a ( of accumulation: its methods promotion and commerce, its principle : grandizement. About a nucleus of Dutch and English-even Frer Huguenot-settlers it subsequently collected swarm after swarm of Iri German, Italian, Jewish and Russian immigrants, a proportion of otlf nationalities, and Americans of many stocks from the seaboard and i interior. For the most part, those immigrants who remained in the ( were compacted into districts especially suited to their exploitation, c tricts as verminous and sunless as the Cloaca Maxima. Here, in dwellit that reproduced the foetor of the slave ship in all but the promise eventual liberty held out to the more intelligent or ruthless, they form a crawling agglomeration. This was the frontier of New York and ! grim apotheosis of the frontier in the United States, preserved almost touched into the third decade of the 20th century.
The shawled refugees from European want and oppression, most whom crossed the ocean in immigrant ships under conditions of the most squalor, were also transported by a succession of great New Y( trade vessels: the Black Ball and other Western Ocean packet lines, t world-ranging Donald McKay clippers, the first wood and iron stea ships. These were conned through the Narrows by men off the supe Sandy Hook pilot schooners which had been worked out from the desig of Isaac Webb in the 1830's, the hollow-entrance experiments of Griffit in the 1840's, and the later masterly work of George Steers in such craft the Moses H. Grinnell and the America, for which the America's C was named. Great numbers of immigrants and New Yorkers moved inla by way of the Hudson River sloops and steamboats, the Conestoga wago! the Erie Canal barges and the railroads. Very early, therefore, the hist( of New York began to be a history of the successive phases in Americ transportation. As its lines of influence spread out into the interi
5
METROPOLIS AND HER CHILDREN
Ickened and were fixed, it became more and more the commanding herican city, the maker or merchant of dress silks and pannikins and ces, wines and beds and grub hoes. Long before the paramount age of l ended, New York had taken on its alternate character as a great two- y transfer point and classification yard for men and goods and ideas ving between the other countries of the world and the great central in of America. It has consolidated and enlarged this character with a Itiplicity of functions which help to determine its position as the first of the Western Hemisphere.
proach to the City
For the American traveler coming home from Cape Town or St. Moritz the Caribbean, and for those others who converge upon the city from 0 d e icago and El Paso and Kildeer and Tonopah, New York has a nearer aning. It is, in whatever sense, a substitute home town-a great apart- ent hotel, as Glenway Wescott wrote, in which everyone lives and no e is at home. In other eyes it may be a state fair grown to magnificence, Main Street translated into the imperial splendor of Fifth Avenue. To Sesch travelers the city is a coat of many colors-becoming to each, but not ite his own. It is both novelty and recognition that pleases him: the velty of its actual and amazing encompassment, the recognition of great tafts and crowds and thoroughfares remembered from a hundred motion ctures, rotogravures and advertisements.
The man from another city will perhaps be least discommoded, his esse of the familiar both intensified and expanded. But to the men and Yomen of the small towns, the sierras, the cornlands and grasslands, the saboard coves and Gulf bayous-farmers, automobile mechanics, pack- ats, schoolteachers-New York cannot help but stand as a special order: pte place which is not wilderness, the place of light and warmth and the invelopment of the human swarm, the place in which everyone is awake fad laughing at three in the morning. These things are not altogether tie, of course-but magic does not need to be true.
The traveler will know many things about New York and there will be guides to tell him many more, in the particular and the large; but he will We by looking, and find out by asking, and match the figure to the Phenomenon. He may know that New York City is made up of five boroughs, four of which-Brooklyn, Queens, Richmond, the Bronx- Impose like crinkled lily pads about the basking trout of Manhattan. He
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6 CONTEMPORARY SCENE
will not know, perhaps, that he and the other men and women w. travel with him helped to make up a total of 68,999,376 visitors to t city in 1936, an off year. If he is an agronomist, he may find a certa perverse irony in the fact that the 198,330 acres of the five borough without any tillage worth mentioning, supported an estimated populati of 7,434,346 in 1937.
But it is less likely that the visitor who moves down one of the enormous radials that converge on New York from Seattle and Galvest and Los Angeles and Chicago will understand how Thomas Campanella vision of a City of the Sun, published in 1623, has influenced the grow of such a modern metropolis as New York. Nor will he be aware, pe haps, that the verses of Walt Whitman and the paintings of "The Eigh and the landscape architecture of Olmsted the elder, quite as much as ť Roeblings' Brooklyn Bridge and the Hoe press and the steel converters Kelly and Bessemer, helped to create the social climate of the emergis city.
In the larger aspects of New York he may glimpse not only the resu. of the Randall Plan of 1811, but evidences of the influence of Gedde Norton, Wright, McClellan, Bassett, Delano, Burnham, Keppel, Jame the Olmsteds, Lewis, Whitten, Howard, Unwin, Wilgus, Mumfor Adams, McAneny, Stein, Perkins, Walsh, the indefatigable Moses, and hundred others of the noble guild of city planners, up to and includi the work of the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, the Port New York Authority, the New York Department of Parks and the Ne York City Planning Commission. He will wish to know how the ci- changes, the extent and character of its physical property, and somethin about the nature and complexity of its functions. But he will understar, that plant and function are never more than indicators of a series of cu tural choices and directions. Finally, he will be made aware of these choic and directions at their source, in the character, convictions and behavior New Yorkers themselves: the faces, vivid or distracted, washed in nec light the color of mercurochrome, faces of men and women who work ar eat and make love in catacombs under the enormous pylons of their city.
The traveler approaches in bare winter or rainy autumn, in keen se board spring or the dog days. He drives a faded sedan with a child slur in a hammock cradle in the rear; or he takes the hot bouillon and cracke of the great airlines. He walks the glassed-in promenade deck of tl Normandie or the open boat deck of the Nieuw Amsterdam; or 1 lounges in the doorway of the Manhattan's radio room. In the streamline
7
METROPOLIS AND HER CHILDREN
b cars of the Yankee Clipper, the Twentieth Century, the Royal Blue, Broadway Limited, or in the day coaches of slower trains, he turns the es of a national or trade journal published in New York-Women's ar, Collier's, Life, Variety, Printers' Ink-and watches the conglomerate kyards of Albany-Bridgeport-Trenton slide past the window. Painted h slipstream whorls, his blunt-nosed bus trundles out of the lunch stop il bores Manhattan-ward again, the whipcord back of the driver twisted he pulls out and around a great dark pantechnicon truck with small aps at its clearance points.
The traveler is a fuel company executive returning from a trip through West, a copy of Saward's Coal Annual wedged into the briefcase be- e him; an elementary school principal from Lewiston, bound for special nrses at Barnard College; a Cleveland printer out of a job, a men's ar buyer from Jacksonville, a Brooklyn clergyman on his return trip im Rome, a Pittsburgh engineer coming back from a South American ise, a San Francisco divorcee loosed in Reno and remarried to a Holly- od fashion designer commuting to New York. These make up a com- site American as alive and definite as Chaucer's pilgrims or Whitman's neradoes of democracy.
But perhaps only the industrial engineer begins to comprehend the thnical changes in transportation between Chaucer's time-or even hitman's-and the 1930's. Unless the traveler drives his own car, he List resign himself to the helmsmen of the neotechnic age-locomotive gineers, ships' quartermasters, bus drivers, transport pilots-whose re- onsibilities have been reapportioned into a vast complex of schedules, intenance men, radio directional and telephone signals, cartographers, ffic lights, instrument panels and routine instructions, all centered on w York.
The helmsmen themselves are aware of their place in this network. The omotive engineer knows it, intent on the block signals aimed at and allowed by the rush of his train, a full minute to be made up between ughkeepsie and Grand Central Terminal. The bus driver gunning his ich in heavy traffic over USI from New England, or the Albany Post Fad, or the Sunrise Highway, or the loop over the Pulaski Skyway into te Jersey City mouth of the Holland Tunnel feels responsibility like a sall knot between his shoulder blades: the need for quick and certain ccisions, the judgment of space and time and the intent of drivers and a Siall boy heedless on a bicycle.
The pilot of Flight 16 eastbound, crossing the Alleghenies in cloud at
8 CONTEMPORARY SCENE
7,000 feet, knows it well. When his tally of instruments-altimeter, cloc air speed, bank and turn, artificial horizon-indicates that he has passe the outer marker, he reports by radio to the company dispatcher at Newa Metropolitan Airport, chief terminus for the New York district. Pa sengers rub at the bleared windows. But as he nears the inner marker Martin's Creek, the mist begins to fade apart into soft translucent islan drenched with sun and the voice from the Newark radio control tow comes in with the tone of a man speaking clearly in the same roor "WREE to Western Trip 16, Pilot Johnson. Stuff breaking up fast. Y are cleared at 3,000 feet to the range station. You're Number Two a plane."
In the chart-room of a transatlantic liner inbound from Cherbourg New York, 200 miles off Fire Island in a pea-soup fog, the blasts of t automatic ship's siren at intervals of one minute vibrate amongst t polished metal or enameled instruments: the chronometers, telephor radio compass, loudspeaker, mercury and aneroid barometers, gy course-indicator and other devices of the new scientific navigation. T senior watch officer checks his chronometers against time signals front Nauen, Arlington and the Eiffel Tower. A seaman at the radio dir ) tional compass slowly swivels the frame of his antenna ring until the ndi of the Fire Island radio beacon-plangent as a tuning fork, but crisper is loudest in his headphones. Making a cross-check, the junior wat officer sets down fathometer depth readings on a length of tracing paf in such a way that it can be laid over the chart for comparison with cour and position marks.
Immobile in the dark wheelhouse, the helmsman concentrates on t lighted compass before him. No longer must he watch for the tellt? flutter of the leech, or nurse his ship in weather seas. In the 330 ye between Henry Hudson's Half Moon, steered into the future New Yc Harbor with a wheel-and-whipstaff rig that resembled a four-armed ca stan with elongated bars, and the great express ships of the 1930's, alrea obsolescent in view of operating costs, irreducible vibration and other f: tors, the helmsman's responsibilities have been shorn away by engine and technicians. The automatic steering device, or "Iron Mike," has ev in part replaced him.
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