USA > Pennsylvania > Philadelphia County > Philadelphia > Municipal government history and politics, Vol. V > Part 30
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And here the point at issue is not simply academic rank : the richest universities, Oxford and Cambridge, which have an annual revenue of about £600,000,1 confer each year by examination numerous scholarships and fellowships. The former are for undergraduates alone. Those who secure them are very proud of the honor, and wear a longer gown than their fellows. These scholarships, which vary from £40 to £100, and are granted for three, four, or even five years, materially lessen the burdens of parents. The fellowships are contested by young scholars who have finished their academic course, and wish to devote themselves to science. This is an admirable system, since it puts the man of letters above the consideration of income, and enables him to live for science alone. Sometimes an honorary title of fellow is conferred upon a noted scholar in order to give him pecuniary freedom appropriate to his rank. Thus Max Müller is a fellow of Oxford. The same support was recently given by Oxford to Mr. S. R. Gardiner, to allow him to devote all his time to his remarkable History of England from 1642 to 1649. The fellowships are secured for several years or for long terms, and are worth £150 to £200 or £300 annually.
For scholarships especially there is hot rivalry among the
1 I give the following approximate estimate of Oxford's income in 1877: £16,800 from rent of real estate and similar sources; £20,000 from students' fees; £3,000 from the University press, etc. The total cannot be far from £35,000 or £40,000. In this estimate are not included the incomes of the twenty-four colleges, which are appropriated; e. g., Balliol £6,000 to £7,000, Merton £18,000 to £20,000, New College £30,000 to £33,000, Christ Church £40,000 to £45,000. There must be much useless expense and squandering that has nothing in common with science in order to dispose of such fabulous sums. "Much waste," was a word I heard repeated again and again.
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colleges. At Oxford, I was assured, the Balliol men are dis- tinguished for taking high rank. A host of men conspicuous in literature and in politics have gone out from this college ; such are Sir Stafford Northcote, leader of the Tories, Cardinal Manning, Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, the poet Swinburne, Matthew Arnold, Dean Stanley. Parliament boasts thirty Balliol men.
In short the colleges have far more to do with making the men than has the university. It may almost be said that this latter term is but a conventionality of academic speech, as Metternich used to contend that Italy was only a geo- graphical expression.
Oxford and Cambridge seemed to me unsurpassed for har- monious development of body and mind. They send out men, gentlemen, in the highest sense of the noble word. As regards scientific organization, I imagine these two universities to be the College of France, enlarged by numerous college halls, responsible for the liberal training of its pupils. The colleges thus closely resemble the Belgian Faculties, which are chiefly professional schools, but with this difference, that the students in England do much more independent personal work.
III .- HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION AT CAMBRIDGE.
Until late years history has been crowded to the background as well at Oxford as at Cambridge. From time immemorial the latter university has put mathematics before all else, and Oxford, the branches relating to classic antiquity, especially the ancient languages. History, which enters only indirectly into these two specialties, was singularly neglected.
More than a century ago George I. founded at Cambridge a chair of modern history, whose incumbent is still called Regius Professor.1 The head of the House of Hanover had
1 At Cambridge and Oxford the chairs bear the name of their founder, who is also entitled professor.
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in view the education of public officials and diplomatists. But more than once this chair has been filled by historians, it is true, but men who diligently took their ease in teaching history. The place was thus held for years by the poet Gray, who never gave a lecture and whose position as royal professor of modern history was a sinecure, though a very meagre honor, it appears, for his literary merit. For the last twenty years historical instruction has taken a more serious turn, especially since Mr. J. R. Seeley has filled the chair of modern history. This eminent publicist, author of several striking books anonymously published, such as "Ecce Homo" and " Natural Religion," is one of the wisest and most original political historians of contemporary England.1 He has had a marked influence at Cambridge.
In this university the examination system is a series of severe tests, called triposes, which occur every spring. At first this examination turned chiefly on mathematics, preëmi- nently the science of Cambridge. In 1824 a second tripos was instituted for Latin and Greek, in 1851 a third for moral science and a fourth for natural sciences, and in 1856 a fifth for theology. Then came the turn of jurisprudence, to which was attached modern history, beginning at 1870. Finally a separate tripos for universal history was instituted in 1875.
In four of the seventeen colleges of Cambridge special lecturers2 are provided to prepare the students for the historical examination. They are : at Trinity College, Mr. B. E. Ham- mond ; at King's, Mr. O. Browning and Mr. Prothero; at Trinity Hall, Mr. Thornley, and at St. John's, Mr. Tanner. Three years are spent in reading for this examination, for which the degree B. A. is conferred. The same degree,
1 Those of his historical works best known on the Continent are: Life and Times of Stein, Germany and Prussia in the Napoleonic Age (3 vols., 1878), and The Expansion of England (1884).
2 These lecturers have incomes varying from £150 to £300. There are also private tutors who make a living from their lessons.
2
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equivalent to a doctor's degree,1 can be taken in the other triposes, each student choosing his specialty.
The historical tripos2 is as follows. The examination bears upon English history, including that of Scotland, Ireland, the British Colonies and their dependencies ; upon certain indi- cated parts of ancient, mediæval and modern history ; upon the principles of political economy and the theory of law ; upon English constitutional law and history of the English constitution ; upon public international law in connection with detailed study of certain celebrated treaties ; finally, a thesis must be written upon a subject chosen from the ten proposed.
This course was arranged according to the suggestion of a council held in 1873, which formulated its conclusions in these terms : "The council is of the opinion that history, considered as a specialty with a separate tripos, ought to be constructed on a larger scale than when it was merely an accessory to other examinations. Therefore it is proposed to assign to ancient and mediæval history a place in the tripos coordinate with that held by modern history, so that the subject may be presented as a scientific whole.
" It is proposed also to unite each branch of history with one of the principal sciences that depend upon it."
As I have said above, the preparation for the historical tripos requires three years. As a rule the three years are thus employed. The first is devoted to general English his- tory, to economics, and to a special subject of ancient history. The second year is employed in reading part of the history of the English constitution, political economy, and a special sub-
1 The title of Doctor or Master of Arts is obtained without examination at least three and a half years after graduation. A tax of about £20 is paid and the candidate appears before the chancellor of the university to be proclaimed M. A. with traditional ceremonies scrupulously observed.
* See "The Student's Guide to the University of Cambridge," Part IX, Historical Tripos (Cambridge, 1882) ; and Cambridge Examination Papers (Easter Term, 1883, CLXXI. Easter Term, 1884, CLXXXIX, Cambridge, 1883 and 1884).
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ject of the Middle Ages. During the third year the history of the constitution is finished and the remaining time given to international law, to political and juridical philosophy, to a special subject of modern history and a special subject of the history of international treaties.
Mr. B. E. Hammond, M. A., fellow of Trinity College, who has carefully drawn up recommendations for students of history,1 insists upon the following points : "The student shall take with extreme care the college lectures that bear upon the special subjects indicated for theses; for if he lose one of these lectures, it will be, as a rule, impossible for him to obtain any help in preparing that part of his subject; the lecturer will not repeat his readings and it is not to be supposed that anyone else has studied the subject enough to furnish the same informa- tion.
"In addition to those lectures specially intended to prepare for examination, the student will attend, so far as he can, dur- ing the three years, the lectures of the royal professor of his- tory-Mr. Seeley."
The author then goes on to give in detail the books to be consulted. As this part of Mr. Hammond's directions shows the character of the examinations, I think well to transcribe it here.
"For English history," he says, "it will be impossible to give a list of works that will apply uniformly to all students; for a man, who before entering the university is not familiar with the outlines of English history, will not find time to read more than J. F. Bright's ' History of England' and Green's 'Short History of the English People.'" Those, on the con- trary, who have learned the general facts in their previous reading will be able to extend their research at the university. It is impossible to acquire a satisfactory knowledge of English history by reading one or two authors; in all cases, a part of this reading ought to precede entrance to the university. It
1 See his Article in Student's Guide to the University of Cambridge, 1882.
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is rare to meet a student who on entering Cambridge pos- sesses the general knowledge contained in the above-men- tioned books ; but this rare man has a great advantage over his fellows. He can immediately begin serious study and combine constitutional with general history. To a student thus prepared the following list of works will be useful.
I. For the Anglo-Saxon period : Lappenberg's " Anglo- Saxon Kings," translated from the German; Freeman's "Norman Conquest," chap. III, and "Old English His- tory," by the same author. II. For the period between the Norman Conquest and the revolution of 1640 : Lingard's "History of England " (combined with some other author, as, for example, Mackintosh on the Reformation) ; Stubbs' "Constitutional History," chapters IX to XIII, "Documents illustrative of English History," and Hallam's "Constitu- tional History" to chapter XV. III. For the period fol- lowing the English revolution : Macaulay ; Stanhope's "Reign of Queen Anne;" the reigns of George I and George II in Stanhope's "History of England " (Mahon); Massey, "George III;" Miss Martineau, "History of Peace" (the introduction) ; and for the corresponding history of the Eng- lish Constitution, Hallam, chap. XV and XVI; and Erskine May, "Constitutional History."
As to the history of Scotland, Ireland, and the English colonies with their dependencies, the parts that pertain directly to the history of England would. naturally first demand the reader's attention. General notions will have been already furnished by the works just given. It is, however, fitting to mention here the best authorities for certain periods of the modern history of the United Kingdom ; thus, for Scotland, Burton's "History of Scotland " from 1689 to 1748 ; for the colonies in their past and present circumstances, Bancroft's " History of the United States," and Heeren's "Manual of the Political History of Europe and her Colonies" (trans- lated).
For political and juridical philosophy : Aristotle, "Politics ;"
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Guizot, " Histoire de la Civilisation en Europe ;" Tocqueville, "Old Regime;" Stuart Mill, " On Representative Govern- ment ;" Freeman, " History of Federal Government " (intro- duction) ; Justinian, " Institutes ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Chap. XLIV ; Austin, "Province of Jurisprudence Determined " (lessons V and VI); Maine, " Ancient Law ;" J. F. Stephen, "General View of the Crim- inal Law of England ;" Savigny, "System des Heutigen Römischen Rechts," Vol. I, Bk. I and II, Chap. I. There is one translation of this work by Guenoux, entitled " Traité du Droit Romain." Considerable extracts are also to be found in English in Reddie, "Inquiries in the Science of Law," 2d edition.1
For constitutional law and history of the English Consti- tution : Blackstone, "Commentaries" (Book I, Chap. II to XIII; Book II, Chap. IV to VI; Book III, Chap. III to VI; Book IV, Chap. XIX and XXXIII) ; Stubbs, "Select Charters ;" Hallam ; Erskine May ; Guizot, " Histoire de la Civilisation en France ;" Bryce, "Holy Roman Empire."
For political economy and economic history : Smith, " Wealth of Nations " (ed. McCulloch, Bk. I, Chap. I, V, and X ; Bks. III and IV); Mill, "Political Economy ;" Brentano, "On the History and Development of Guilds and the Origin of Trade Unions " (translated) ; Leone Levi, " History of British Commerce ;" 2 Baxter, "National Income," "The Taxation of the United Kingdom," "National Debts."
1 This reference to the French translation of a German work is explained by the fact that a knowledge of German is very rare among English stu- dents, although French is familiar enough to many of them. I have been told that out of every three students at Oxford, one is likely to be reading a French book ; while, on the contrary, only one out of fifty can do as much with a German book. Nevertheless, few of those who read French read with sufficient ease to consult freely the French authors. At Cambridge the situation is practically the same.
2 Mr. Cunningham's recent work, "The Growth of English Industry and Commerce," is also used.
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For international law : Wheaton, " International Law" and " History of International Law."
Mr. Hammond supplements this long and interesting enum- eration by these general remarks: "It is possible that some students will read entirely through each of the books in the above list. It is certain that all will do well to read many of them thus ; but each man ought to judge for himself how much he can do. Upon this point no one can give advice of universal application, except that every student ought to read through the book in hand, at risk of sacrificing others. Indi- vidual predilections and biasses alone can determine what one should read and what neglect.
"For the special subjects prescribed in the curriculum for each year, the Board recommend no authors ; the students can get advice from the respective lecturers."
These special subjects are chosen and published in advance. The following are the subjects of three successive years : For 1882-Greek history, from 776 to 479 B. C .; history of France, 1302 to 1494; history of England, 1649 to 1714; history of international treaties, 1648 to 1721. For 1883- Roman history, 509-290 B. c., including the political institu- tions of the empire; history of Western Europe, 476 to 800, including relations with the Eastern Empire; English Re- formation, 1509-1560; history of treaties, 1648-1697. For 1884-Greek history, 510 to 403 B. C .; history of Italy, 1250-1494; history of England, 1603-1660; history of treaties, 1697 to 1763. For the subjects of the last year the students had to consult especially, Grote, Sismondi, Gar- diner, Ranke (" Englische Geschichte," translated), Koch, and Scholl (" Histoire abrégée des traités de paix entre les puis- sances de l'Europe, depuis les traités de Westphalie, 15 vol., 1817).
All regulations of the history examinations are determined by a special board, called " Board for History and Archæ- ology," which was instituted about ten years ago and is par- tially renewed every year. The members are elected by
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alumni.1 At present this Board consists of the royal professor, Mr. Seeley, and of Mr. Hammond, Mr. Browning, Mr. Pro- thero, Mr. Thornely and Mr. Tanner, the five lecturers in history.
The tripos is a severe test. It may not last less than five consecutive days, and takes place in May of each year. The competitors assemble in a large hall and do their work in writing. I give below the paper for 1884.2
On Monday, May 26, the candidates had already, between the hours of nine and twelve, answered nine questions in Greek history, and in the afternoon, between one o'clock and four, they had to answer nine out of these twelve questions :
1. "It is a fact that some men are free and others slaves : the slavery of the latter is useful and just"3 (Aristotle, "Politics," I, 15) .- " We hold this truth as self-evident; that all men were created equal" (Declaration of Independence of the United States). What arguments can you bring to support these two assertions ? Show to what extent it is possible to reconcile them.
2. Show briefly the necessity and the nature of the reforms instituted by Justinian in his legislation.
3. The epoch of heroic kings is followed by the epoch of aristocracies (Maine). Prove this statement from Roman his- tory and from the history of a nation of the West or North, showing the part played by these aristocracies in the develop- ment of laws.
4. Guizot considered feudalism a species of federal govern- ment ; weigh the arguments in favor of this view and compare feudalism with other ancient and modern confederations.
1 The Regius Professor is a member ex officio. At Cambridge and Oxford the graduates meet from time to time and take action upon all questions of organization. It was this body who voted in 1884 by a large majority for the admission of women to the academic examinations at Oxford. The universities profit by the salutary principle of self-government which is at the base of everything in that happy country.
" See Cambridge Univ. Examination Papers, Easter Term, 1884.
3 The Greek text of Aristotle was given.
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5. Consider the causes of the universal growth of towns during the twelfth century and determine to what extent the revival of Roman institutions can be seen therein.
6. According to the principles of Austin, what are the limits of rights of subjects against their sovereign and of the sovereign against his subjects? Discuss the application of these principles to the struggles of James I. against Parliament.
7. Show that the following laws are not laws in the true sense of the word: Lynch law, canonical law, the law of cricket and the law of supply and demand.
8. Show how the penal code has been from time to time adapted to occasion and give examples borrowed from the history of the law of treason.
9. Show, with examples from history, what influence public opinion can have on government in countries that have neither democratic nor representative institutions.
10. Distinguish by the aid of ancient and modern authors, between the different methods that can be applied to the study of politics and compare their advantages.
11. What is the meaning of the terms national will and national conscience, as differing from the wishes and opinions of the citizens ? Show the importance of these terms in view of the development and rank of states.
12. Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the differ- ent modes of electing executive power in democratic states.
The choice of these questions is remarkable ; it presupposes great cleverness on the part of the pupils; but I question whether when the candidates have but three hours before them, the required answers to nine of these points are not of necessity superficial and mechanical.
On Tuesday, the twenty-seventh of May, the contestants had to treat in the morning nine questions on Italian history, chosen from the period between 1250 and 1494; in the after- noon they had to answer nine out of twelve questions on Eng- lish history.
On Wednesday, the twenty-eighth, they had but one exami-
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nation lasting from nine o'clock till noon. This was the day devoted to the essay, in which the pupil must show his origi- native power. He must choose and treat in detail one only of the following subjects :
1. The condition of labor in ancient, mediæval and modern times.
2. The difficulty of administering State lands.
3. The reasons why it is necessary to obey Law.
4. The possibility of a federation between England and her colonies.
5. Thucydides and Clarendon.
6. The connection existing between the political greatness of a nation and its literary greatness.
All these questions involve at the same time history, politics and even philosophy. They illustrate the tendency of histori- cal instruction at Cambridge. It is moreover the essay that constitutes the most important part of the historical tripos and has the most decisive influence upon the student's rank.
On Thursday, the twenty-ninth of May, the candidates had to write upon nine out of the following twelve questions on international law :
1. What influence has the establishment of diplomatic rela- tions among the European states had upon international law and politics? Show the limits to the prerogatives of foreign ambassadors between 1697 and 1763.
2. Define neutrality. What is meant by permanent neu- trality ? Is it recognized by international law ? Explain the connection between the right of asylum and the duty of neutrals.
3. What are the conditions requisite to render valid in the sight of international law grants of territory ? What is meant by government de facto?
. 4. Explain the terms jus postliminii, jus avocandi, droit d'aubaine. Develop the maxim, Ut mores gentium mutantur et mutatur jus gentium.
5. " D'après un usage barbare, dont le cabinet de Londres
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s'est plus d'une fois rendu conpable, l'amiral Boscawen atta- qua le 18 juin 1755, sans qu'il y eût en déclaration de guerre, deux vaisseaux de guerre française."1 Is this accusation against the English government supported by fact ? What was the custom established between the European nations and the United States during the last century, and in this century in regard to a declaration previous to commencement of hostilities ?
6. Name, with their dates and the wars that they have ter- minated, the great European treaties that were confirmed by the treaty of Paris in 1763. What were the principal com- mercial treaties concluded during the first part of the eight- eenth century ?
7. Indicate with precision the successive phases of the Great Alliance. What were the pledges that bound the mem- bers when negotiations for peace were opened in 1711 ?
8. How far were religious interests involved in the war of the Spanish succession ? Can you cite examples of guaranties formulated in favor of religious claims in the treaties concluded between 1697 and 1763 ?
9. It has been said that Russia entered in 1717 the alliance of European nations. Criticize this statement. Were any improvements in the foreign policy of Russia accomplished during the ten years following ?
10. What was the import of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI and the Family Compact of 1761 ? Point out some historical analogies to these two agreements and sketch the history of the Pragmatic Sanction up to the beginning of the first Silesian war.
11. In what circumstances did the war of the Polish suc- cession break out and by what arrangements was it closed ? Discuss the imputations that have been made against those arrangements.
1 This reference was given in French, from what historian I do not know.
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12. Trace, through the history of treaties, the successive phases of England's foreign policy between the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle and the commencement of the Seven Years' War ; do the same for Russia from this war to the peace of Huberts- bourg.
Nine out of twelve questions in political economy and history of economics had to be answered in the afternoon of the same day. These questions dealt with the great problems of political economy ; with the substitution of machines in place of manual labor, with excess of production, with the fluctuations of population in their effects upon wages and rents, with free trade, with the colonial system ancient and modern, with the former condition of farming classes in Eng- land, with industrial legislation and the trades, with capital, with the economic effects of war, etc. These questions were in almost every case so arranged as to demand accurate knowledge of history.
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