USA > Pennsylvania > Philadelphia County > Philadelphia > Municipal government history and politics, Vol. V > Part 35
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sarily limited. (2) A class-room capable of accommodating fifty students, all seated around tables in banquet-fashion, for a conversational discussion of lectures, for the examination of books and specimens, etc. Such a room would serve many literary and educational purposes in a community like North- ampton. The new library at Buffalo, which is admirably described by its efficient librarian, Mr. J. N. Larned, in an illus- trated volume, has provided for a lecture-room and a class- room ; and Dr. W. F. Poole, of Chicago, is considering the same project for the great Newberry library.
One point more. The good people of Northampton have upon the heights of their growing city a beautiful college, with an excellent corps of professors, trained in all the arts and sciences, and with a great variety of educational apparatus, which might easily be conveyed a short distance for the illus- tration of popular evening lectures. Here, upon the heights of learning is an unfailing source of intellectual supply for the intellectual demands of the people of Northampton. Here is a fountain of inspiration for a people's university. Here Smith college and the Forbes library ought to stand side by side as the Erechtheum and the Parthenon stood upon the acropolis of Athens. The temples of Minerva should have elevation, light, and beauty. The "still air of delightful studies " will be as agreeable for a people's university as for a woman's college. Seclusion from the noisy street, room for the expansion of a great institution, which is to broaden and deepen its popular foundations through the coming centuries, are important considerations for all the friends of sound learn- ing in the progressive town of Northampton.
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN ENGLAND.1
There is a remarkable movement in England towards the higher education of the people. Education like government is broadening its foundations. Common schools have long been recognized as pillars of free government, but the exten- sion of higher education by the classes to the masses is a striking phenomenon in aristocratic England. It is like the extension of the franchise. The old-time exclusiveness of English universities is breaking down. From classic shades, from quadrangles shut in by ivy-mantled walls, vigorous young Englishmen have sallied forth to meet the world, man- fully recognizing its need of higher education and carrying the banners of science into the great towns and into the manu- facturing and mining districts of England. This novel move- ment is called University Extension. It has been in progress for more than ten years and there is now no question as to its popularity or success. The universities of Cambridge and Oxford, Victoria university (Owen's college), and the local colleges at Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham, Bristol, Sheffield, Nottingham, Cardiff, and Bangor are all engaged in this democratic educational mission. The idea is taking hold of conservative Scotland, and it has already been put in practice
1 This article has been published by "Ford's News," a newspaper syndi- cate, and appears in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1885-86, pp. 748-49.
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by the universities of Australia. Sooner or later we shall see the idea popularized in America.
To a practical mind the most interesting feature of this movement is its economic character. It is not altogether a missionary movement or an educational crusade. It has its business side. It is primarily a case of demand and supply. Representatives of labor and capital in England have awak- ened to the fact that universities are in possession of a useful commodity called higher education. Men begin to realize that a good knowledge of English history, political economy, social science, literature and the arts makes for the general improve- ment of society and the development of a better state of feeling among its members. The demand is not for common schools; these exist already ; the recognized need is higher education for adult voters and persons past the school age, too busily engaged perhaps in other pursuits to permit of much continu- ous study, and yet able to devote some of their time to intellectual improvement. Grasping the situation and its possibilities, public spirited individuals have formed educa- tional societies or associations in towns and parishes ; they have affiliated with existing local institutions of an educa- tional or social character, such as local colleges, institutes, literary and philosophical societies, church institutes, me- chanics' institutes, etc. They have appointed active secre- taries and sub-committees, always representing the ladies. Young people are secured for canvassers. Teachers and artisans, capital and labor are brought together. Without sectarian or political entanglements, the best forces of the community have been united in an educational object. The mayor or some public man is made the honorary head of the enterprise. Subscription-shares of five dollars are taken, some persons subscribing perhaps for several shares, others clubbing together for one share, but all having representation in the society. Course tickets and single tickets are sold at moderate rates. Upon such good economic foundations these educational societies have made their demands upon
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the universities for local instruction by lectures in systematic courses.
The universities have met this demand by a supply of well- trained, enthusiastic young lecturers, who, for a reasonable compensation, are willing to give public courses in the towns and districts of England. The university men of Oxford and Cambridge are recognizing that culture should not be selfish. The new political economy has already struck deep root in the English universities. It is Humanism in a new form. Individualism the world needs, but selfishness is always odious. The Cambridge men go out from their comfortable cloisters to lecture to the people for a variety of individual considerations, -good will, ambition for distinction, public spirit, scientific propaganda, and a fec of $225 for a weekly course of twelve lectures. They agree to conduct a class each week for review or discussion of the previous lecture, and to correct voluntary exercises written at the student's own home upon set questions, requiring private reading. This involves laborious, painstak- ing work. The university appoints an examiner upon the term's work as marked out in the lecturer's printed syllabus of topics, which, by reason of its careful analysis, saves much labor in note-taking. The examination fee is ten dollars. Two sorts of certificates are given, "pass" and " with dis- tinction." There is no further gradation of rank unless the local authorities offer prizes.
A term's work of twelve lectures and twelve class exercises is the unit of the university extension system. It costs alto- gether about $325, including the university-fee and incidentals. Enterprising towns quickly multiply their courses until they have a regular curriculum extending through three years in various groups, such as (1) literature and history ; (2) natural science ; (3) the fine arts. The courses in English history and political economy are very attractive. Persons who follow a three years' course in one of the above groups, embracing six term courses of twelve weeks, and two courses in one other group besides his chosen specialty, are allowed to be enrolled
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as "Students affiliated to the University," provided they will pass an examination in the elements of the higher mathematics, in Latin, and in one other foreign language. Such persons may count their three years' of university extension study as the equivalent of one year's residence at the university and may complete there the course for the bachelor's degree in two years. Thus, without lowering academic standards, English universities are extending their privileges to the English people. This liberal policy has led to the establishment of student associations throughout England and to the most hearty support of the higher education and of educational institutions by the workingmen. The English universities are doing more than any other one force in England toward breaking down the antagonism between the rich and the poor. Arnold Toynbee, a martyr to his cause, and other Oxford graduates have carried this new gospel into the heart of East London, where Toynbee Hall, with its lecture-courses and class-rooms and industrial training was the forerunner of the People's Palace, opened by the Queen of England, May 14, 1887. A society for the extension of university training has been formed in London and is associated with the uni- versities of London, Oxford, and Cambridge. Besides Toyn- bee Hall, at Whitechapel, East London, there are thirty or more local centres of educational operations in and about London. Each centre has its own secretary and local organi- zation and local economy. If the local subscriptions and local sale of tickets are not adequate to meet expenses, the central society aids largely in meeting the deficit.
University extension in England will continue its noble work with increasing energy and success. Its advantages are too great to be abandoned. First, it is revolutionizing popu- lar lectures. Instead of the old system of lyceum courses, which was a cheap variety show for evening entertainment, there is now continuity of interest and specialization upon a particular subject until the audience really knows something about it. Second, university extension brings the higher
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education into provincial towns without the necessity of endow- ing colleges or multiplying universities. For a few hundred dollars each year, every town and district-union in England can have the university system brought to its very doors. Third, this system strengthens all local appliances for educa- tion, whether schools, colleges, institutes, libraries, museums, art-galleries, or literary societies. " It combines with every- thing and interferes with nothing."
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XII
EUROPEAN SCHOOLS
HISTORY AND POLITICS OF
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor
History is past Politics and Politics present History - Freeman
FIFTH SERIES
XII
EUROPEAN SCHOOLS
OF
HISTORY AND POLITICS
BY ANDREW D. WHITE
BALTIMORE N. MURRAY, PUBLICATION AGENT, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY DECEMBER, 1887
COPYRIGHT, 1887, BY N. MURRAY.
JOHN MURPHY & CO., PRINTERS, BALTIMORE.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
EUROPEAN SCHOOLS OF HISTORY AND POLITICS :
PAGE.
In Germany
7-11
In Austria-Hungary 11-12
In Switzerland 12
In France
12-17
In Italy. 17-21
APPLICATION OF EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE TO OURSELVES.
21-44
MODERN HISTORY AT OXFORD, BY W. J. ASHLEY .. 45-55
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF THE ECOLE LIBRE, BY T. K. WORTH- INGTON. 56-67
PREPARATION FOR THE CIVIL SERVICE IN GERMAN STATES, BY L. KATZENSTEIN 68-75
LIST OF BOOKS UPON THE GERMAN CIVIL SERVICE, BY L. KAT-
ZENSTEIN
75-76
EUROPEAN SCHOOLS OF
HISTORY AND POLITICS.1
In various visits to European universities during the past thirty-five years, I have been especially interested in this department, embracing those studies by which men are fitted to take part in public affairs, and I purpose giving a general account of its recent growth and present condition at some of the centers of European instruction, and then to bring the . knowledge thus obtained to bear on what seems a great prac- tical need in our own country.
GERMANY.
In every important university in Europe, during many years past, extended courses of instruction in history, political and social science, and general jurisprudence have been pre- sented. The foremost rank hitherto, in this instruction, has
1 A portion of this paper was read at the third anniversary of the Johns Hopkins University, February 22, 1879, and was then printed as read. The whole study is so important to students and teachers of History and Politics in this country that the Editor of this Series requested President White to allow a partial revision of the subject matter and its reproduction in the present form, with certain timely supplements which show what work is actually in progress to-day in European Schools of History and Politics .- Editor.
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been taken by Germany. While it is true that the want of practical political instruction, that which comes by taking part directly in political affairs, has stood in the way of a complete, well-rounded political education of the whole people in that country, it is also true that to these courses is due almost entirely that excellence in German administration which is at last acknowledged by the entire world. We may disbelieve in the theories of government prevalent among the Germans, but we cannot deny their skill in administration.
Among the German institutions, in which a leading place is given to instruction relating to public affairs, probably the most interesting is the University of Tübingen.
Several years ago far-seeing statesmen established there a distinct faculty, devoted to the training of men for the service of the state. The results are now before the world. The graduates of this department hold to-day leading places not only in the administration of the Kingdom of Würtemberg, but throughout the German Empire. In conversation with leading men in Southern Germany, I have not found one who has not declared this and similar courses of instruction a main cause of the present efficiency in the German administration.
The faculty at Tübingen, dealing practically and directly with political and social instruction [Staatswirthschaftliche Facultät], in the years 1887-88 embraced nine professors, be- sides sundry associate instructors, and in the faculties of law and philosophy were several other professors constantly giving instruction bearing upon these subjects. From their courses of lectures, recently announced, I select the following :
1. Political economy.
2. Money.
3. Postal and railroad system.
4. Labor question.
5. Agricultural policy.
6. Forestry (5 and 6 connected with excursions).
7. Credit and banking.
8. Finance.
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European Schools of History and Politics.
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9. Corporations.
10. Social statistics.
11. General constitutional law and politics.
12. German constitutional law.
13. Administrative law and practice, including dealings with crime.
14. International law.
15. The philosophy of law.
16. History of communism and socialism.
17. Educational system of modern States.
18. Greek and Roman institutions.
19. History of the age of Reformation.
20. Universal history.
21. Constitutional history of Germany (since 1806).
22. History of the German Empire since 1871.
23. History of our own times since 1850.
24. History of social revolutions of modern times.
25. Exercises in the seminary of political economy.
26. Exercises in the seminary of history. Theses for competition (" Preisaufgaben ") :
1. The question of the dwellings of the laborers and the attempts at solving it.
2. Representation of the influence of Albrecht Thaer and Justus Liebig on the development of German agriculture.
The above selection is made to show the extent of the in- struction. There are also many other lectures in other facul- ties on kindred topics. It should also be noted that these are the subjects presented in a single term of a single year. During the time given by the student to his university course many other important subjects would be taken up.
The University of Tübingen may be taken as a type of those institutions in Central Europe which group studies re- lating to public affairs [Staats- und Cameralwissenschaft] in a single faculty ; but in most of the universities these studies are not thus grouped, but simply scattered through various faculties, and especially through those of law and philosophy.
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European Schools of History and Politics. [480
.
Of this latter class of institutions the University of Berlin may be taken as typical. From the courses given through the year 1887-88 I select the following, to show the scope of instruction :
1. Political economy.
2. Finance.
3. Banking.
4. Money.
5. Administration.
6. Taxation with the Romans.
7. Agricultural policy.
8. Statistics.
9. Socialism and Individualism.
10. History of the Middle Ages (4 different courses).
11. Prussian history.
12. Politics.
13. Parliamentarism.
14. History of East and Middle Asia in the 19th century.
15. History of the Macedonian Empire.
16. Roman history since Nero's death.
17. Greek and Roman institutions.
18. Geography.
19. Constitutional history of Germany (2 different courses).
20. Modern history (3 different courses).
21. Sources of Greek history.
22. History of the Roman Empire.
23. History of the Popes.
24. Exercises in the seminaries, besides lectures on the various subjects of law.
Connected with this in the announcement were grouped a number of those studies which with us are generally brought into the courses of our agricultural colleges. In such univer- sities as Leipzig, Bonn, Heidelberg, Gættingen, Jena, Kænigs- berg, Marburg, &c., similar provisions were made. It is interesting to observe that in all these the professors were ready to grapple with living questions, and that courses were
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European Schools of History and Politics.
481]
given in nearly all of them by distinguished men upon ques- tions raised by the socialistic party.
As regards the preparation of young men for these courses, it is certainly not more than equivalent to that obtained in American colleges and universities of a good grade by the end of the freshman year. Having heard recitations of classes in various departments of the German gymnasia, or preparatory colleges, I make this statement with confidence.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
In the Austrian Empire the new and liberal government has carried out largely the same system.
The announcement of the University of Vienna for 1887-88 shows that it has adopted the Tübingen plan of a distinet fac- ulty for subjects relating to political and social science. In one term of 1887-88 courses of lectures were presented by this faculty, from which I select the following :
Vienna, 1887-88 (including two Semesters).
1. History of German Empire and law (3 different lectures).
2. Constitutional law of Austria.
3. Penal law and prisons.
4. Church law.
5. Roman law.
6. Law of inheritance.
7. The philosophy of law.
8. Law of mining.
9. Labor legislation.
10. Finance.
11. Political economy.
12. Statistics.
13. Administration.
Besides this, provision was made in other faculties for exten- sive instruction in various departments and periods of history.
As to the general character of all this instruction among German-speaking peoples, whatever it may have been in the-
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European Schools of History and Politics. [482
past, it is not at present calculated to breed doctrinaires ; it is large and free; the experience of the whole world is laid under contribution for the building up of its students ; ques- tions of living interest have their full share in the various lecture-rooms. To know how our own democracy is solving its problems, one of the German universities sends to this country for study one of its most gifted professors, one from whom thinking men on this side of the Atlantic have been glad to learn the constitutional history of their own country. The lectures of Professor Von Holst, as delivered here, and his work upon the constitutional history of the United States, are sufficient to show that this instruction in the German universities is given in a large way, and is not made a means of fettering thought. At no seats of learning in the world, probably, is political thought more free. The University of Berlin stands on the main avenue of the capital of the German monarchy, directly opposite the Imperial Palace. Within a stone's throw of the Emperor's work-table are the lecture desks of a large number of professors, who have never hesi- tated to express their views fully upon all the questions arising between democratic and monarchical systems ; I have myself, in these lecture-rooms, heard sentiments freely uttered which accorded perfectly with the ideas of Republican and Demo- cratic American statesmen.
SWITZERLAND.
In the Swiss Republic, instruction in political and social science is held in especial honor. At the universities of Zurich, Basle, Berne, and Geneva, a large number of profes- sors are constantly engaged in it ; young men come to them with the direct purpose of fitting themselves for a political career.
FRANCE.
In France, for many years, history, political and social science and general jurisprudence have held a leading place in
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European Schools of History and Politics.
483]
all the great institutions for higher instruction. Whatever may have been the political mistakes of that country, many of which are directly traceable to the want of popular educa- tion, it cannot be denied that the internal administration of the country is conducted with great ability, and its ordinary legislation with great foresight. The financial errors which in times gone by have cost France so dear, and which have since been so ruinous to other nations, have been skilfully avoided during this century. It is common to ascribe the speedy recovery of France from various catastrophes to the subdivision of land among her people. This is doubtless an important factor in her success, but it is by no means all ; a similar subdivision of land in our own country has produced no such rapid recovery from financial disease. No one can read French discussions of economic questions without seeing that to the trained skill of her statesmen is in very great measure due that stimulus to the production of wealth, and that recuperative power after disaster, which astonished the world after 1870-71, and which present the financial history of the French Republic in such striking contrast to our own.
To these results have contributed in no small degree the courses at the College of France. At that institution, in the heart of Paris, a knot of men has long been giving the highest political and historical instruction. In the center stood Laboulaye, who, though later somewhat withdrawn by his duties in the French senate, during many years, delivered lectures, not only upon general political history, and especially upon the constitutional history of the United States, but upon comparative legislation. About him have stood such men as Wolowski, Chevalier, Levasseur, Franck, Maury, Rozierè, the younger Guizot, and others, treating of various great his- torical, political, and social questions, presenting the best thoughts of the past and present. Among the courses of lec- tures at the College of France, I noted especially the fol- lowing :
1. International law.
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European Schools of History and Politics. [484
2. Comparative history of legislation.
3. Political economy.
4. History of economic doctrines.
5. History and morals.
6. History of political literature.
At the Sorbonne and various institutions throughout France, as at Dijon, Caen, Poictiers, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Toulouse, Rennes, Aix, and others, similar instruction, in a greater or less degree, is presented by vigorous men.
But perhaps the most interesting creation of the last 25 years, as regards the preparation of young men for the service of the state, is the Independent School of Political Sciences. At the head of this stands M. Boutmy as director, and about him have stood several of the most thoughtful and energetic men in France. Of these may be mentioned such as Léon Say, member of the Institute of France, senator and ex-cabinet minister, Leroy-Beaulieu, Roederer, Levasseur, Lyon-Caen, Ribot, De Foville, chief of the bureau of statistics in the ministry of finance, and others noted as members of the Institute of France, and of various important political bodies.
Independent School of Political Sciences at Paris.
PROGRAMME OF LECTURES OF TWO YEARS: 1887-88, 1888-89.
1. Comparative administrative organization.
2. Administrative affairs.
3. Financial systems of the principal nations.
4. Public revenues and taxation.
5. Political economy.
6. Statistics, foreign commerce.
7. Constitutional law of France, England and United States.
8. Constitutions of Germany, Austria, Belgium, Switzer- land and Italy.
9. Parliamentary and legislative history of France, 1789- 1875.
10. Geography and Ethnography.
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11. Diplomatic history from 1789 to our own time.
12. Contemporary Europe and Oriental affairs.
13. Diplomatic history from 1648 to 1789.
14. Economic geography.
15. International law.
16. Comparative commercial and maritime law.
17. French colonial legislation.
18. Comparative civil legislation. 19. Colonial geography.
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