USA > Rhode Island > The "Old Stone Bank" history of Rhode Island, Vol. III > Part 2
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From the eminence overlooking the site where the founder of these planta- tions proclaimed freedom of soul nearly three hundred years ago, his predecessor, the red man, or the latter's predecessor, some unknown type of primitive man, once beheld a scene that is no more. From that site, now crowned by the hoary walls of Brown University, the first lone man may have looked westward through the branches of towering oaks and elms across a picturesque stretch of land and water. "The Great Salt River" flowed far below, broad and unconfined. On the east it was bordered with ancient forest trees, and on the west by deep marshes studded with islands overgrown with coarse eel grass. At the head of the bay the channel widened into a cove with a broad gravelly beach on the east and north, and a border of salt marshes on the west. It received on its northern side, two small sluggish rivers, each with its own basin of swamp and woodland. Still farther westward low sand hills, scantily covered with pines, rose above the marsh. Before this unknown observer was the sharp descent to the pebbly shore of the "Salt River," to the east was the thickly wooded slope that gently descended to the banks of the Seekonk. To the south danced and sparkled the waters of a great wide bay bordered with rocky shores and sandy beaches.
The stage was set for a play, a play with many actors and many scenes. Not ex- actly a tragedy, certainly not a comedy, this play was destined to be an heroic tale of men and women, inspired by noble ideals. The little area which we call Rhode Island became the center platform, the world the audience, and the only critic the same Divine Agency that picked both the actors and the actresses and assigned to them their immortal roles.
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THE FIRST PEOPLE
"THE first people to live in the area that comprises the present State of Rhode Island belonged to a race whose origin is as yet unknown. They were called Indians, not because they came from India, but because Christopher Columbus, in 1492, sailed to these shores and believed that he had come to the outer fringes of the East Indies, already famed for beauty, fertility and wealth. Naturally, the ad- venturous navigator called the inhabit- ants of the islands, supposed by him to be parts of India, Indians, a name as strange to the red men of this continent as were the fair-skinned men and curious ships that ventured to these shores. In his writings, Columbus noted that these so- called Indians were neither wild savages, nor cruel barbarians, and he observed that they had kindly faces, that they carried no weapons, and were courteous and generous. Quoting his very words, Co- lumbus said, "They were gentile, without knowing what evil is, without killing, without stealing." "Because," he said, "they showed such kindness for us, and because I knew that they would be more easily made Christian through love than fear, I gave to some of them some colored caps, and some strings of glass beads for their necks, and many other trifles, with which they were delighted, and were so entirely ours that it was a marvel to see." The name "Indian" was thereafter ap- plied to the aborigines of North America.
For generations, scholars have sought to ascertain the origin of the American Indian, many opinions have been ren- dered, many theories proposed, but the beginnings of this race still remains a mystery. Anthropologists have been un- able to trace the descent of the red men from any other existing races, their individualities differentiate them from all other nations and tribes of this earth. However, this is true, the Indians were decidedly inferior to the Cliff Dwellers of Arizona and the Mayan people of Yuca- tan. In language, laws, dress, dwellings, food, tools, arms, art, etc., the Mound Builders, Cliff Dwellers, Aztecs and
others who dwelt in this land many cen- turies ago are believed to have attained greater heights of accomplishment than the wandering Indian tribes first encoun- tered by Columbus. But, there is yet to be found a single evidence that the Indian had a predecessor in what is now Rhode Island. So, until the archaeologist reveals the Rosetta Stone of prehistoric man in these parts, we must consider the Indian as the first inhabitant, and of him not a great deal is known.
Not a great deal is actually known be- cause he left little behind for us to study, observe and reflect upon. The Narragan- sett tribe, the largest and the most power- ful in this vicinity, practised little or no form of writing or illustrating; its mem- bers confined their handiwork to the fash- ioning of stone, bone or shell implements for home or hunting use; they knew noth- ing of sculpture beyond the crude cutting of small images; little of their works in wood or other perishable materials has survived the passing of time or destruc- tion by the elements; and they had no historian. Nevertheless, these Narragan- setts constituted a powerful nation, they held the center of Indian power in the great northeastern area of this continent, neighbor nations were subservient to them; many smaller and weaker tribes or clans were compelled to pay them tribute and ally themselves in times of war or political difficulty. And so, from the meagre evidences of Narragansett civiliza- tion which have been unearthed here- abouts during the past century, from their own tribal traditions which were related to the first white settlers; and from the recordings of the few early writers who preserved certain important facts about them, let us begin to piece together the complete story of the peculiar traditions, manners, customs, habits, social development, beliefs and experi- ences of a race of people who once lived on lands which we and our ancestors have completely usurped.
Canonicus was the chief sachem of the Narragansetts at the time when the Eng-
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lish came to these shores to establish the first settlement. His grandfather was Tashtapack according to Indian tradition, and here is a case where we must depend entirely upon tradition until more tan- gible evidence is discovered. Tashtapack was too proud to join either of his two children in wedlock with the children of any of the subordinate sachems who came to his Sachimuacommock, or royal palace, to pay tribute or to receive orders. Whereupon he married his own son and daughter to each other and, subsequently, they became parents of several sons, the eldest being Canonicus. This story of the unnatural union of blood brother and sister, in order to preserve the power and dominion of the Narragansetts, was never doubted by the natives, and it seems to have been borne out and justified by the known actual condition of the tribe at the time of the landing of the whites. At that time, no eastern tribe could com- pare with them, either for the extent of their jurisdiction, and number of their warriors, the compactness of their popula- tion, the firmness and wisdom of their gov- ernment or the industry of their people.
Note carefully the following interesting facts. In addition to the domination of the Narragansetts over the Wampanoags, the Massachusetts tribes on Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket and else- where, this powerful tribe that centered its kingdom right where we live today, had full and undoubted jurisdiction over the inhabitants of a tract of country, extend- ing from the region of the Nipmucks, now Oxford, Massachusetts, on the north, southerly to the ocean, including the Island of Manisses, which we call Block Island, Fisher's Island and a portion of Long Island. It began on the east with the Seekonk River, on the eastern shores of the Bay and extended westward, includ- ing the islands, to the borders of the Pequot and Mohigan tribes that dwelt on the banks of the Thames River, that flows into the sea at New London, Con- necticut.
The general name "Narragansett" was applied to all the inhabitants of this long tract of country; but the natives living within its borders were divided into several petty tribes, each having its under-
sachem and a local name. On the other hand, the name strictly belonged to the natives who occupied the land on the western and southwestern shores of the Bay, to the chief ruling tribe, the sachem of which was the grand sachem of the Nation. The political set-up was similar to our present organization with its small villages, towns, cities with their mayors and a governor whose office corresponds with the earlier position of grand sachem. This tract of land previously bounded was not a mere forest penetrated only by roving native hunters; it was diversified with towns, villages, camps and culti- vated fields. Agriculture had made con- siderable progress among the Narragan- setts, since some historians have described occasional gratuities made to individuals, out of surplus crops, of one thousand bushels of corn. Their chiefs could call five thousand warriors in the field, and their population was so dense that one, in travelling a distance of twenty or twenty-five miles, would pass a dozen towns or villages, consisting of from twenty to two hundred or more dwellings. How surprising these facts are when we reflect this was so less than only three hundred years ago, and it is all the more surprising when we observe that all this is no more. A few arrowheads, an occa- sional disinterment, perhaps a rotted tree-trunk canoe, a mere handful of crude implements, comparatively speaking a meagre assortment of specimens of Nar- ragansett civilization, is all that is left of this vanished race of men who loved these pleasant shores, perhaps with a greater degree of appreciation than we are able to show today, we who have inherited that which was lost by our predecessors.
It is said that the Narragansetts were further advanced in the arts than any other aboriginal nation of the north, although the articles found in these parts are greatly inferior in workmanship and in ingenious fashioning to the articles of a similar character found farther westward and among the tribes of the south. But, here in the northeast, they excelled in the manufacture of earthenware, in forming tools and implements wrought from stone. They excelled in making belts and girdles for ornaments, and in the manufacture of
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wampum - that is, shell beads originally made for the purpose of personal decora- tion. Wampum, or Wampumpeague, because of its value, became a medium of exchange and it answered all the purposes of coin. The wampum that originated here was exchanged along the seacoast, and for hundreds of miles inland. The Narragansetts became wealthy as well as powerful. It is claimed that the United States is the wealthiest nation in the world because it has the greatest treasure of gold - so too was this tribe that inhabited the shores of the Bay the wealthiest in the region ; here was the most valuable source of fancy string beads laboriously cut from bleached shells. The wealth of the Narragansetts gave them additional importance in the eyes of the surrounding tribes. Even the ferocious Mohawks, called by the Hon. Job Durfee "the Romans of aboriginal America," esteemed them as brothers and equals, and, in any great emergency, were always ready with their aid.
Continuing a bit with the study of Indian politics at the time of the white man's arrival, we find that, up to that time, there was only one tribe in this section of the country that maintained its independ- ence, from the autocratic, or rather, dictatorial, Narragansetts. About thirty or forty years before the landing at Plym- outh, an inland tribe called the Pequots decided to become a nation of conquerors. Moving eastward from some area in the western or northern part of New England, they exterminated or vanquished one tribe after another until they arrived at
the outposts of the Narragansetts, where they found a strong barrier to their course. In Connecticut, in the vicinity of New London and Groton, across the river, they paused in their career of victory, settled on the banks of the river, built a few rude fortifications and carried on a prolonged war with the tribesmen who had at last checked their campaign. Most of the other Connecticut tribes became tribu- taries of the Pequots, but the powerful Narragansetts repelled all advances and firmly maintained their independence. With all other tribes the Narragansetts maintained peaceful relations, although in some cases this peace was the enforced type prevailing by necessity rather than by choice.
Immediately preceding the arrival of the Pilgrims a terrible plague killed off a great many of the Wampanoags who lived in the vicinity of Warren and Bristol and this blow quickly placed Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags and ruler of an independent confederacy of ten or more tribes, under the Narragansetts who, luckily, were untouched by the prevailing pestilence. Likewise, the Mas- sachusetts tribes, those immediately be- yond the old Plymouth Colony, were also subject or tributary to the local dictators. It was this body of aboriginal people in New England that first came into friendly contact with civilized society, and it was this same powerful, proud and hopeful nation that, in a little more than half a century after the first touch of the white man, scattered and disappeared as before a consuming fire.
THE CHARACTER OF THE INDIANS
W E now turn to an observation of the nature or character of the first people to live in the area known, today, as Rhode Island. Unfortunately, most of the early writers who related stories, not facts, about Indians, and, to be exact, most of these who have ever written about the local tribes, have been decidedly one- sided in their conclusions and statements. To them the Indian appeared only as an
enemy, and therefore, he is generally treated from the standpoint of the white man who allowed little or no credit for his adversary, however good, right, just or noble the latter might have been. Any English historian, writing at the time of the American Revolution, indulged in few compliments for the Colonists over here, simply because they were the enemies at the time. The German editor wasted
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few kind words for any of the Allied enemies during the World War ; the Con- federate annalist was certainly biased in his opinions of the Northerners not so many years ago. It all comes down to a point-of-view in such matters, exactly as it did in the case of the white man when he told of his enemy in the forest. To the white man the Indian was a savage enemy ; in his own mind the Indian was a patriot in every true sense of the word. Did he not sacrifice life and property in a losing struggle to preserve what he had every right to believe belonged to him and to his people? Does not patriotism mean "devotion to one's own country"?
Since the Indian had no historian, and since the tribes in this section of the con- tinent had no written language other than a few hieroglyphic symbols, it should be readily understood why it is difficult to present a clear picture of a race that has completely disappeared from its native homelands. And this is even more of a task when, with few exceptions, the finer characteristics of a people have been overlooked or purposely deleted by nearly all annalists during the past three cen- turies. So, to correct one unfair impres- sion that the Indian was a heathen, in the figurative sense of the word, let us consider the Indian's idea of the super- natural, his idea which involved his religion, his faith in a future state, to- gether with some of the superstitious beliefs and practices which were the natural outgrowth of religious sentiment common to all humans.
Taking the premise that the Narragan- setts were originally a branch of the Algonquin or Chippeway stock, a great family of tribes scattered, at the time this country was discovered, from the Penob- scot to the Chesapeake, from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, it is possible to ascertain facts concerning the religious beliefs of the Narragansetts, Wampano- ags, Pequots and other small groups that roamed the forests and fished in the streams in the northeastern corner of the present United States. What was true of the great Algonquin confederation was undoubtedly true, in general, of the Rhode Island tribes. And if so, it can be con- cluded that the local natives acknowl-
edged one Supreme Spirit, Giver or Master of Light. They regarded this Great Master or Spirit as the supreme source of all power, and of all good. They supposed the earth upon which they dwelt to be an island resting upon the bosom of the great deep. Furthermore, these natives were strong in their belief that this great Master, many, many years before had lifted the earth from the bottom of the sea; clothed it with forests and foliage, and caused its mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers and bays to be filled with all manner of beasts, birds and fishes. They regarded themselves as the children of the Master and believed that the earth and the waters, with all of their abundance had been provided by Him as an inheritance for their special use.
Apparently they recognized in this Great Master a sort of Omnipresence. He was the God who looked down from above. His presence was felt in the tower- ing mountain, its overhanging cliffs, and in the quiet forests. His voice was heard and his strength was felt in the roaring waterfall where the forest trembled for leagues around. Where mysterious echoes broke the silence in dark caverns and in deep ravines, in short, wherever they found the sublime and the ominous com- bined, there they recognized the presence of this invisible Being. On the other hand, while they believed that He existed everywhere, his chosen abode was as- cribed on the Island of Sowanui, some- where in the far southwest, the direction whence came the balmy breezes of the summer, bringing abundance from the soil, trees and bushes, and giving warmth and joy to the earth's inhabitants.
Now we come to a phase of New Eng- land Indian religion that is rather difficult to describe, although an understanding of it is necessary if certain customs and prac- tices are to be comprehended. To the Indians, God was the Chief Manitto, or Great Spirit, the great One among many Manittos or Spirits. In Christianity the attributes of the Creator are represented by such living things as the lamb and the dove, whereas in Indian religion the attributes of the Chief Spirit or Manitto was revealed in many different living forms. Sometimes it took the form of a
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mighty eagle that coursed over the great ocean, with eyes flashing fire, and wings rustling thunder, and that upon touching the wave tips with the plumage of its breast, the earth, filled with all living things, at once arose and floated on the surface of the sea. This form seems to have been typical of the Great Manitto's power. But, there was another form which was probably emblematical of his boundless benevolence or of the absence of all evil. Here, in this section of South- ern New England, the Great Manitto was symbolically represented by the Great Hare, or Divine Hare. This may appear curious to some people, but consider the lamb and the dove.
Whenever the Indian discovered some- thing which he could not explain he con- sidered it a Manitto or Spirit, one that was subordinate to the Supreme Manitto. For example, when he placed his hand upon his breast and felt the beating of his heart, and asked himself the same ques- tion which neither science nor philosophy has yet conclusively explained, "What causes this beating ?" he knew that it was something mysteriously wonderful and he called it "manitto." The same with the pulsing in his wrist, there the Indian dis- covered another manitto. Following the same reasoning, diseases, which upset the healthful action of these and other man- ittos were looked upon by the Indian as evil manittos, or evil spirits. The sun, moon and stars, as they ran through their changes in the boundless heavens, were looked upon as the most beneficent of manittos. The vast, rolling ocean that lashed these shores with never ceasing fury was a manitto of all but omnipotent power. Each species of animal had its special manitto; that of the deer, the fox, the beaver and so on throughout the entire range of wild life on land, in the sea and in the air. And whenever any individual species was distinguished for excellence of its kind, as the deer for speed, the fox for its cunning or the beaver for its industry - each ruling deity of the species would become a manitto in the mind of the Indian. Thus, we have a clear explanation of the native amulets, totems, badges, stone cuttings, skins with talismanic pic- tures and other forms of household Gods
and heraldic insignia that featured repre- sentations of animals.
King Philip's belt or pouch, made of wampum, was ornamented with the representations of animals. It is believed that some particular animal was often regarded by a brave in these parts as of such religious importance that he accepted it as his guardian manitto. Such was the case when it had been presented to him by the Chief Manitto in a dream, or during the ceremony of initiation as a chief or warrior, and thereafter the representation of the animal would doubtless become the badge of the individual.
Surrounded, as he believed himself to be, with a multitude of greater and lesser spirits, and convinced that the super- natural was above, beneath, around and within him, the Indian looked upon a selected few individuals as the natural intermediaries for communication with these spirits. These few might properly be called the native priests who were called upon to act as prophets, physicians and magicians. These officials sacrificed to the Great Manitto, received from Him the revelations of the future, expelled the vicious demons that afflicted the sick; and conjured up spirits from the depths to do the bidding of the tribesmen. Where there was illness the priest used a variety of simple herb remedies, but the principal means by which he hoped to cast out the demons were his charms and incantations; and, since diseases were acknowledged to be evil manittos, none but the priests could effectually subdue or control them. The priest would sit night and day at the side of the patient, rattling the chickicone in his ears, and practising other mystic ceremonies for the avowed purpose of directing the attention of the demon from the work of destruc- tion. Such superstitious practices seem childish to some people, but they can readily be explained in the light of Indian faith and philosophy.
The Indian believed in the immortality of the soul and his notion of the nature of the soul was seemingly as fixed and defi- nite as that of bodily existence. There were two terms in the Narragansett dialect by which the soul was designated, and both seem to indicate the source from
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which their idea of it originated. Cowe- wonk, one of these terms, was derived from Cowene, meaning to sleep, and these children of the forest believed that the soul worked while the body reposed. The other term, Michachunk, probably meant a "clear sight," whereby it may be inferred that the world of dreams was a world of realities. Whenever the image of a dead friend or relative appeared to an Indian in a dream he firmly believed this image to be his friend's soul, spirit or manitto. Great consequences of mingled good and evil resulted from this belief. It inspired the dying and his friends with consoling and confident hopes. It gave form and character to their funeral cere-
monies, and it gave long-enduring strength to the spirit of vengeance. No better insight into the true character of the Indian could be gained than from the foregoing account of his religious convic- tions. He loved Nature in all of its mani- fold forms, he revered beauty and feared God, he knew the difference between good and evil and looked upon the soul as immortal. He respected treaties, and not once in Rhode Island history did he break a bargain. In every instance he met kind- ness with kindness, and when the time came for him to turn to war to preserve life, liberty and property, he fought with all the fury that ever inspired a patriot to defend a just cause.
NATIVE MANNERS, CUSTOMS AND HABITS
S' NOME of the most definite evidences of Indian civilization in the section known today as Rhode Island have been revealed and are continually being dis- closed within or beneath the top-soil of meadows, glades, fields, ravines and sheltered hill-sides, sites that were once the habitations of people who have dis- appeared completely within the com- paratively short period of three hundred years. Archaeologists, professional and amateur, are constantly stumbling upon, or scientifically excavating, various articles once fashioned by Indians and used by them in their daily pursuits. Local museums are rapidly acquiring priceless articles of antiquity that make possible the piecing together of the com- plete story of how the aborigines here once lived, hunted, played and indulged in primitive forms of craftsmanship; and not a few private book-shelves and mantels in Rhode Island now display choice examples of crude stone knives, bone implements, arrowheads and soap- stone bowls. Yet, all of these discovered to date represent but an insignificant por- tion of the treasure that still remains hidden in the shady waste places of Rhode Island; in the tightly packed sub-
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