USA > Ohio > History and geography of Ohio > Part 11
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In all these counties, coal mining is the chief occupation. It is not necessary to go to other states to find typical mining towns. Dillonvale and Bellaire are centered about the coal mines. St. Clairsville, New Philadelphia, Mineral City, Nel- sonville, and Cambridge are other mining centers. Ohio's coal fields are located in the "hill and valley" portion of the state, a region unsuited to general farming because of its irregular
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surface and poor soil. The coal formations bring industrial prosperity to this section, which would be poor if it did not possess this important source of wealth.
The method of opening up the mines and of operating them is exceedingly interesting and instructive. Whatever good thing we have has cost effort and sacrifice, and this is especially
FIG. 104. Interior of a coal mine near Nelsonville, Ohio
What motive power is used to draw these cars? How are the mines ventilated? Why is the work of the miner so hazardous?
true of the production of coal. It is no ordinary task that the coal miners undertake when they enter upon their shift in the mine. They have hazards that are far greater than those in the ordinary pursuits of life. Every miner works in con- stant danger from the falling of the roof, explosion of gas, floods, and fire.
It will be interesting for you to read the story of how the shaft is sunk and the mine enlarged, and the method by which the coal is poured into the chute and loaded on the cars. Through it all you will be impressed with the difficulty under which the miner labors, and the dangers that constantly threaten
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him (Fig. 104). Even the air that he breathes must be forced into the mine through air passageways to the bottom of the shaft, where it enters the main galleries and mine chambers. Immense fans are placed at the foot of the shafts, by means of which the foul air of the mine is forced to ascend to the surface
FIG. 105. Wasteful beehive coke ovens
When coke is made in ovens of this type the valuable gases escape and no by-products are saved. (Courtesy of H. Koppers Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
through other air shafts. Many laws have been passed by our legislature to safeguard the lives of miners. Explain. What is the Davy lamp ?
Nearly one half of Ohio's coal is shipped to the Great Lakes and carried by boat to the Northwest. Of the coal used in the state, about one third is consumed in industry, and one fifth is used in heating homes and buildings. A much smaller pro- portion is made into coke and used in manufacturing gas.
Coke-making from coal has developed rapidly in the last ten years. Coke is made in iron and steel plants, which require
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this fuel for smelting iron ore. Coke was formerly made in beehive ovens, which permitted the escape of gas and coal- tar products, leaving coke as the only product (Fig. 105). At present, modern coke ovens are generally used, which save the gas, tar, and by-products (Fig. 106). The by-products obtained
FIG. 106. By-product coke ovens, Lorain, Ohio
These modern retort ovens save the by-products of the coking process. This picture shows the ovens, the cars used for filling them, and the coal-storage bins. (Courtesy of the National Tube Company)
by this process of coking are sufficient to pay for the coal used. The gas is consumed in the iron and steel plants, and the other by-products are sold. Some of these by-products are tar, lamp- black (used for ink and paint), naphtha, hundreds of dyes, per- fumes, explosives, carbolic acid, moth balls, creosote, blue-print paper, fertilizer, baking-powder, sulphuric acid, and the like. The coke ovens of Ohio produced nearly 3,000,000 tons of coke in a recent year. Cleveland and Youngstown make three fourths of this output.
0
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The rapid increase in the use of coal has resulted in wasteful methods of mining, and frequently in the wasteful use of this fuel after being mined. Ohio's coal deposits are being rapidly mined, and unless more care is exercised in the method of mining and in the use of this important fuel, Ohio's coal supply will be rapidly exhausted. The fuel supply of the state is sure to become one of our most serious problems. You can readily see that without its coal supply, Ohio would be an agricultural state, lacking its large industrial cities.
Problem II. How the waste of natural gas proved an industrial loss to the state
In 1838, during the excavation of a well near Findlay, gas was found and carried by a wooden pipe to the owner's fire- place, where it was burned for more than fifty years. At East Liverpool, in 1859, a well drilled for salt was abandoned be- cause of the natural gas which was then considered a distinct nuisance. Later the gas in this well was piped to a house and to a pottery. In the years immediately following, many small gas wells were put down in various sections of Ohio, the output of which was used entirely for domestic purposes. As a commercial fuel, gas found no use until about 1884.
The first center of extensive gas drilling was at Findlay. Many of the wells drilled here about 1885 proved to be large producers. The famous Karg well had a tremendous flow of gas, which came to the surface with a roar that could be heard for several miles around. It was lighted and the flame was visible for many miles. Findlay gave free gas to all industries which would locate there. This served as a wonderful induce- ment and caused a growth in population that was phenomenal. No effort was made to conserve the gas, and as a result it was practically exhausted within ten years. Fostoria, Tiffin, Lima, and many other cities have had a like experience with their gas supply.
At present the gas region is confined to the section extending from Lakewood, on Lake Erie, through Medina, Newark,
MINE AND QUARRY PRODUCTS
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Lancaster, and on to Wellston. The Lakewood area, about thirty miles west of Cleveland, was first discovered in 1912. Within five years, 900 wells were drilled within this small area. This gas was of great value to Cleveland, but at the present
ERIE
L
KE
0
Toledo
A
Cleveland
Akron
Youngstown
404
Columbus-
0
Dayton
River
Oil Producing Territory
Gas Producing Territory
Railroad or River-Ship-
ing Coal Mines
+
Salt Works
Portland Cement Works
0 Gypsum Mines
A Limekilns
Scale of Miles
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Soda Ash Plants
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10 20 30 40 50 60
FIG. 107. Mineral-producing areas in Ohio
time the supply is nearly exhausted. Fairfield, Knox, and Licking counties are now the principal sources of natural gas in Ohio (see Fig. 107). More than thirty-five villages and all the large cities of Ohio are using natural gas. Over one half of this supply is obtained from West Virginia. The gas of the large cities is brought several hundred miles through pipe lines.
Cincinnati
Ohio
Ohio
-...
River
0
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
Natural gas is the most convenient fuel for domestic use. It is cheap, free from smoke, and has high heating qualities. Much gas has been used industrially, especially in glass factories and potteries, but recently gas has been reserved for domestic use. Ohio ranks second in the amount of natural gas consumed, while in production it is fourth. From natural gas 5,000,000 gallons of gasoline are extracted each year in Ohio.
Problem III. How Ohio's oil wells have created numerous industries
Petroleum or Seneca oil was used in Ohio as a medicine in 1818. Its bad taste was its chief recommendation as a pioneer remedy. Petroleum was first obtained in the vicinity of Marietta, in Washington County, in wells less than one hundred feet in depth. From Marietta the crude petroleum was shipped to Pittsburgh, Cleveland, St. Louis, and other cities for refining. In the refining, kerosene was obtained, and it furnished a brilliant light which rapidly replaced the dim candle. Today kerosene is widely used for lighting purposes, but it is likely to be completely supplanted by the electric light of more recent discovery. Petroleum occurs in coarse sandstone formation, at from 200 to 2000 feet below the surface. To obtain it, deep wells must be drilled to the "oil pool," as the un- derground reservoirs of petroleum are called. When the well is drilled the petroleum may flow to the surface; otherwise it is pumped. The crude oil is stored in immense tanks until the refinery is ready to convert it into various products.
The oil pools of Ohio were developed after those of Pennsyl- vania. The first oil wells were along the Ohio River, but later the rich fields in the northwestern part of the state were dis- covered. In Wood County, the largest producer of oil, 8000 wells were drilled. At present the northwestern part of Ohio produces more oil than the southeastern region (see Fig. 107). Lima, in Allen County, is in the center of the oil region (Fig. 108). In 1888 Ohio was at the height of its petroleum production. It was then producing about one third of the crude
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oil of the country. Experts estimate that the Ohio oil wells are nearly exhausted. Today this state produces only one forty- fifth of the petroleum supply of the country.
In refining petroleum the chief products obtained are gaso- line, kerosene, gas and fuel oil, lubricating oil, wax, vaseline,
FIG. 108. Oil refinery at Lima, Ohio
In the refinery, crude petroleum is converted into useful products by means of distilla- tion and chemical treatment. The most important products obtained in this way are gasoline, kerosene, lubricating and fuel oils. The crude petroleum is usually trans- ported to the refineries by means of pipe lines, while the refined products are carried principally in tank cars
and many other products used in medicine and in the arts. Petroleum refining has been centered largely in Cleveland, Lima, and Toledo. At first the crude petroleum was shipped in tank cars to the refining centers, but pipe lines have since been built to carry oil to the refineries. In early days, kero- sene was the important product, and gasoline merely a waste product. The development of the gasoline motor, automobile, and tractor has made gasoline the most important petroleum product. It is estimated that Ohio produces less than one
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thirtieth of the gasoline that is consumed in industries, auto- mobiles, and airplanes. Gasoline may be obtained from oil shale, and in the near future the large deposits of these rocks in Ohio will probably be utilized to produce motor oil and gas.
Problem IV. How Ohio's clay products have made this state a leading producer of building materials and pottery
Doubtless we attach too little importance to the clay prod- ucts of our great state. It is a matter of statistics that Ohio produces one fifth of the country's sewer pipe, pottery, and other clay products. When we think of the great quantities of brick, terra cotta, roof tile, sewer pipe, hollow building tile, electric-fixture tile, and drainage tile that are used in this state, we get some notion of the importance of Ohio's clay. Not- withstanding the great quantities used in our state, we are con- stantly shipping out still larger quantities for use elsewhere.
Nearly every community has its brick-yards where the local supply of brick is burned. It will be an interesting study for you to make a trip to one of these brick-yards and discover how the clay or shale is first pulverized, then mixed with water, and under heavy pressure pressed into the required shape. You will note that these bricks are dried and piled into the kiln, where they are fired for several days. Then we have the finished brick, which you know so well.
The heavy paving brick are burned much longer than the common building brick. This renders them firmer and less likely to be broken. The first heavy paving brick were made at Malvern in 1887. Today Stark, Cuyahoga, and Muskingum counties furnish about one fourth of the vitrified paving brick of the United States. You will be interested in finding out why it is that certain bricks are of one color while others are of another, likewise why some bricks are strong and others comparatively brittle.
Ohio is the leading state in the production of hollow building tile and roof tile. As early as 1814 in the quaint village of Germantown, south of Dayton, roof tile was made. In 1820
FIG. 109. A porcelain-manufacturing plant, Carey, Ohio
Porcelain is in great demand as an insulating material ; that is, a substance which will not transmit or conduct electrical currents. The plant illustrated above specializes in the production of electrical porcelain insulators, including knobs to which wires may be tied, cleats between which wires are clamped, tubes within which wires are carried through walls, and blocks of many designs to which electrical devices are attached. (Courtesy of the Federal Porcelain Company)
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FIG. IIO. One method of making pottery
The potter takes a lump of tempered clay and places it on a rapidly revolving disc or potter's wheel, as shown in the first picture. As the wheel turns he gradually works it into the desired shape. Turning on the wheel represents the earliest method of the potter, and is still used for art-ware. (Cour- tesy of the Rookwood Pottery, Cincinnati, Ohio)
roof tile was made for buildings at Zoar, in Tuscarawas County. Many of these tile roofs at Zoar are still in excellent condition, although they are more than one hundred years old. From this early beginning, Ohio as- sumed the lead in the manufacturing of roof tile. Today the im- portant centers for its manufacture are Akron, New Philadel- phia, Cincinnati, and New Lexington.
Ohio's pottery prod- ucts are nearly double the value of those of New Jersey, our lead- ing competitor. Ohio's great pottery district is in Columbiana County, with East Liverpool as the center. This city produces one half of · the pottery of Ohio. Mahoning and Summit counties also have large pottery centers.
Pottery manufacture in Ohio began when James Bennett, an Eng- lish potter, came to East Liverpool and
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found the clay in the neighboring hills satisfactory for Rock- ingham and yellow ware. Bennett built a kiln in 1839, and made the first pottery in Ohio. This ware was peddled from home to home. Bennett's success led to the establishment of other potteries, until at the present time East Liverpool has 307 kilns. Ohio clay is largely used, although clay is also obtained from North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Florida, and even from England.
When the clay is received at the pottery, it is mixed with other clay and water to form the "slip." This is stored in large cisterns until needed. The water is then pressed out and the clay is FIG. III. Decorator at work in his studio ready for the potter. The art-ware of the Rookwood Pottery has won an international reputation. The original Rookwood consisted of a stoneware body, decorated with slip glaze colors, chiefly shades of brown and green. The latest Rookwood product is the "velum" ware, in which lighter hand-painted decorations are cov- ered with a transparent matte glaze Nearly all pottery pieces are cast in molds, only a very few special dishes being shaped by hand. After the piece is formed by casting or pressing in the mold, it is taken to the kiln for firing. It requires two days for firing and cooling the kiln. After the first firing the glaze is applied, and the piece refired. Some of the decorating is done by hand, but most of the figures are made by what are called transfers. After being decorated the piece is fired, and it is then ready for packing and shipping. It is estimated that each piece of pottery is handled from forty to fifty times before it is ready for use.
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Have you ever been interested in the dishes that are on your table? If so, you will doubtless come across trade-marks indicating that much of this ware was made in Ohio. The East Liverpool pottery district produces a good deal of the semi- porcelain, white ware, Rockingham, and white granite. In fact, so much of the best pottery of the country is turned out at East Liverpool and the neighboring section that this district is called the "Staffordshire of America." About 9000 people are employed in these potteries alone. Their whole thought and best efforts are given over to shaping objects of beauty and usefulness for our homes.
The Rookwood Pottery of Cincinnati is famous the world over, not so much for the large output as for the marvelous beauty of coloring and design of the pieces (Fig. III). This particular output has an international reputation. Sebring and Zanesville are centers that have large pottery interests with a product that is deservedly popular because of its beauty and utility.
Problem V. How Ohio's quarries supply many valuable building materials
We all realize the importance of stone, especially sandstone, as a building material, for many of our homes, bridges, and factories are constructed of this material. However, the use of steel and reënforced concrete for building purposes has tended to decrease the use of sandstone for larger structures.
The sandstone of Ohio occurs largely in three counties- Cuyahoga, Lorain, and Medina. It is quarried and shipped from these counties to all parts of the state. The quarry at Amherst supplies a stone of buff color that is easily worked and quite durable. Many of the public buildings in Ohio have been built of this stone. The Gray canyon quarry at Amherst is over 200 feet in depth, and is one of the largest sandstone quarries in the United States. The Berea grit is a sandstone found in northern Ohio and quarried at Berea, where it is made into grindstones, pulp-grinders, and whetstones (Fig. 112).
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Four fifths of the grindstones used in this country are made at Berea. For sidewalks, sandstone is used from the quarries of northern Ohio. At first this sandstone was split into slabs or flags, but at present the slabs are sawed from a block of stone. Sand- stone is also used in paving and for curbs. When sandstone is
FIG. 112. A section of the famous Berea quarry
Describe the process by which the stone is taken from the quarry and made ready for use. Why is artificial stone often used as a substitute for the natural product ? (Cour- tesy of the Cleveland Stone Company)
free from impurity, it is valuable for the manufacture of glass. One or two localities in this state have glass sands that are shipped to the larger factories. Some Ohio sandstones are used for furnace linings, others supply material for highway construction.
In stone and brick construction, cements are necessary. The common cements are lime, plaster of Paris, Portland cement, and hydraulic lime. These cements are used in large quantities in modern structures. Portland cement is used in many stages of building construction. Paving and bridge-building also
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require Portland cement. Plaster of Paris is used for interior decoration, while lime is the basis of plaster used in interiors, and of mortar used in laying up brick.
Portland cement is made by grinding and mixing together limestone and shale. The mixture is then burned at a very high
FIG. 113. A lime-burning plant at Carey, Ohio
Lime is produced by placing limestone rock in kilns so designed that the flames from the furnaces come in direct contact with the limestone. The result of this burning is the product commonly known as "quick" lime. Lime in this form absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and soon becomes unfit for plastering and mason purposes. Hence, immediately after burning the lime, modern plants slake or hydrate the prod- uct, applying the exact amount of water which will satisfy a given weight of lime. (Courtesy of the National Lime and Stone Company, Carey, Ohio)
temperature. The resulting "clinkers" are finely ground, and Portland cement is ready for use. One of the chief uses for Portland cement is in the construction of permanent highways. The west-central section of Ohio has large deposits of limestone suitable for the manufacture of cement. Sandusky and Castalia have the largest plants in the state.
Gypsum is a mineral product which occurs near Sandusky Bay (see Fig. 107). It is white or mottled in appearance, and soft. From gypsum a number of important cements are manu- factured. Gypsum is ground fine and heated to form plaster of Paris, which is widely used as an interior decoration.
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Ohio produces lime in large quantities for building purposes. Limestone formations occur in the western part of the state. From some of these formations, limestone has been taken out for building purposes. The State Capitol at Columbus and some of the important buildings in Cincinnati have been con- structed entirely of limestone. When limestone is crushed and burned, it changes into the lime used to make mortar and plaster. Lime is used in chemical plants and sugar-beet factories. Ohio produces a large quantity of lime for home use and for shipment to other states. The largest lime-burning plants in the state are situated on Kelleys Island in Lake Erie, also near Spring- field, Marion, and Carey (Fig. 113).
SPECIAL PROBLEMS FOR INVESTIGATION
1. Make a list of the rock products used in the construction of a school in your community. Try to find where each of these rock products was obtained. Which of these rock materials do you consider the most durable ?
2. A school collection.
a. Let the class collect small specimens of all the rocks found in the school neighborhood. Label all of them with their proper names. What kind of rock forms the bed rock of your community? If any rocks are mined or quarried in your vicinity, make a report of how the work is done.
b. Collect pictures and articles concerning the use of minerals in Ohio.
3. Experiments to try.
a. Find which is the more durable, sandstone or Portland cement. (A careful examination of the buildings of your neighborhood will aid you.)
b. How many tons of coal are used each year in your home or school? If there are a million school children in Ohio, how many tons of coal does it take to keep them warm in the winter ?
c. Find the difference as to size and durability between the com- mon brick used in house construction and paving brick.
d. Why does gas sometimes burn with a yellow flame ?
e. Inspect the trade-marks on the under side of dishes and report how many were made in Ohio.
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f. Gather some clay from shale banks in your neighborhood and fashion it into some object. Let it dry and then try burning it in a hot fire.
g. Obtain some quicklime and slake it by adding water.
h. Find out how lime is used to make plaster or mortar. Do the same for Portland cement and plaster of Paris.
i. Can you change a piece of coal into coke? Try it.
j. Put some acid on sandstone and limestone. What difference can you see in the results ?
4. Projects.
a. Make a drawing of a coal mine as you imagine it would appear.
b. Make a drawing of a barrel containing petroleum and around it print all of the products made from it.
c. Explain how salt is made in Ohio.
d. Make a drawing of a cross section of a well-built road and show all of the rock products that go into a good road.
e. A debate: Which is of the greater benefit to man, sandstone or shale ?
f. A story : How I prevented the waste of coal. What will take the place of coal in fifty years ?
AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS
ATWOOD, WALLACE W., New Geography, Book Two, pp. 51-52, 286-294. Reports of the Ohio Geological Survey.
Reports of the State Inspector of Mines.
Secure a geological map of Ohio from the State Geological Survey at Columbus. This map will show the kind of rock in your community. Study of the map will show where sandstone, limestone, shale, coal, and gypsum are obtained in Ohio.
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CHAPTER VIII MANUFACTURING
Problem I. How the pioneer home met its need for food and clothing
After the pioneer had built his log cabin, his next concern was to provide food and clothing for himself and family. Corn, beans, and pumpkins were the staples chiefly relied on; there was also an abundance of wild fruit, cherries, plums, and berries of every kind, while the maple trees provided sugar for the making. Wheat bread was unknown in those early days; its place was supplied by corn bread baked in various ways. At first there were no mills to grind the corn; it was pounded into meal by means of a heavy wooden pestle in a mortar made by hollowing out a stump or log. Stock-raising was at once com- menced on a small scale, and soon hogs, cattle, and sheep were quite numerous. The women did the milking and made the butter and cheese. Fruits were sun-dried, and the meat from wild and domestic animals was pickled, smoked, dried, and salted. Stills were plentiful, and as much corn was made into whisky as into bread.
The entire family went barefoot in the summer, but in winter the pioneer wore moccasins of buckskin and buckskin leggins or trousers ; on his head was a cap of squirrel skin, often with the tail still dangling from it; while a hunting shirt, belted at the waist and fringed at the knees, completed his costume. The shirt was made of coarse homespun, a mixture of wool and flax called "linsey-woolsey." From this same ma- terial the dresses for his wife and daughters were made. Calico was a luxury sometimes purchased for a wedding dress at the cost of a dollar a yard. Silks, satins, and laces were not even dreamed of.
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