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I04
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
(Fig. 63) shows its site at the junction of the Muskingum River with the Ohio. The valley of the Hocking extends to the Ohio, and contains railroad lines with the cities of Lancaster, Logan, and Athens. The valley of the Scioto extends southward from Columbus, where it is broad, to Chillicothe, where it becomes narrow as the river enters the plateau region. The railroad follows this valley from Chillicothe to Portsmouth on the Ohio.
In the hill-and-valley region of the Allegheny Plateau the rainfall is drained from the land rapidly, and for this reason floods are common in all of the streams (Fig. 70). These floods remove the fine and fertile soil. This loss of the fertile soil and the uneven character of the surface make agriculture unsatis- factory except in the river bottoms, where the most fertile lands are found. The valley of the Ohio River is utilized for railroads and as a highway of travel across the Allegheny Plateau in the same manner as the smaller valleys.
Problem IV. To learn about the origin and surface of the Lake Plain
The Lake Plain in Ohio borders the southern shore of Lake Erie. It was formed when the waters of Lake Erie stood at a higher level and covered all of the region shown as the "Lake Plain" on the map. At that time the areas now occupied by Toledo, Cleveland, Sandusky, and the other shore-line cities were below the waters of the lake. The Lake Plain is nearly level and extends across the northern part of the state, having the widest extent in northwestern Ohio and narrowing greatly to the northeast. (See map between pages 106 and 107.)
The ancient shore of Lake Erie is marked by ridges of sand which were made by the lake when it stood at a higher level. These ancient beach lines extend across the Lake Plain roughly parallel to the present shore of Lake Erie. In many places these ridges have been used for roads, hence called ridge roads. Near Elyria there are three ridges, called North Ridge, Middle Ridge, and South Ridge. In many places on the Lake Plain these ridges, which are unbroken for miles, have been
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IO6
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
used from the earliest times as highways-first as Indian trails, later as wagon roads, and now as the routes of electric lines and railroads. Between Cleveland and Ashtabula are several ridges which are continuous for many miles.
The Lake Plain consists largely of sandy soil with clay and silt in some places. These soils are distributed in such a way as to form a very smooth surface. Cedar Point consists largely of sand formed by the lake currents into a long bar which may sometime extend across Sandusky Bay.
The Lake Plain with its level surface offers good oppor- tunities for land transportation along the southern shore of Lake Erie. Railroad lines and roads cross the plain in all directions (Fig. 71). The ease with which transportation facili- ties can be constructed is one of the most important factors in the great industrial growth of this region.
Problem V. To learn about the surface features of the Central Plain, the largest and most important region of Ohio
The Central Plain of central and western Ohio forms the most fertile as well as the largest region in the state. It consists of gently rolling hills, wide river valleys, and broad stretches of level plain. The surface features are due largely to the glacial deposits (Fig. 72). In the central portion of this region the gently rolling hills are moraines, which were deposited along the edge of the ice-sheet as it retreated northward. At Belle- fontaine, in Logan County, the highest of these hills reaches an elevation of 1550 feet above sea level, which is the highest eleva- tion in the state. The lowest elevation in the state is at Cin- cinnati, where at the period of low water in the Ohio River the lowest land is 440 feet above sea level. The divide between the Lake Erie and the Ohio drainage basins is rather flat and not easily seen in the Central Plain. Near the headwaters of the Miami River in Hardin, Allen, and Auglaize counties is the site of an extensive swamp, which has been drained and reclaimed into very fertile land. Name some of the crops to which this drained swamp land is well adapted.
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POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC MAP SHOWING NATURAL REGIONS
OWest Union
Boston
Scale of statute miles
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390
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* Large water-power sites
WOOD
Explanation
& State capital
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DRAINAGE BASINS OF OHIO
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L Dams on Miami and Ohio R.
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- COAL O.
ORE 0.6
NOTE: The commerce of each lake port is expressed in millions of tons, each line representing a million‹
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ORE 0.6-> Newburgh Height
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107
SURFACE FEATURES
The river valleys which extend north and south across the Central Plain are very broad. The valleys of the Scioto and Miami rivers contain fertile limestone soils. In the Miami River Valley, the limestone soils form the tobacco lands. These wide valleys are the routes of railroads, canals, and other lines
FIG. 72. Devil's Pot, Circleville, Ohio
Pickaway County has many interesting geological formations. This glacial or "devil's" pot, as it is called, lies two miles northwest of Circleville. It is one of the largest gla- cial pots in the state, with a diameter of 1175 feet, and a depth of about 75 feet. This formation, like the adjacent gravel ridge which extends for miles along the Scioto River, was left many ages ago by the glaciers which moved down from the Far North
of transportation which connect Lake Erie and the Ohio River, and in them are the industrial centers and manufacturing dis- tricts of the Central Plain. In the Miami Valley are Sidney, Troy, Dayton, Middletown, and Hamilton. In the Scioto Val- ley are Upper Sandusky, Marion, Columbus, Circleville, and Chillicothe. Locate these cities on the map between pages 106 and 107.
The surface features of the Central Plain are like those of the prairies in the states to the west. The fertile soils and the gently rolling character of the surface make this region the
108
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
greatest agricultural section of Ohio. The farms here have the highest value per acre of any in the state. This region forms the eastern end of the great corn belt of the United States, and in addition to corn, large crops of wheat and other grains are raised. We shall study more about farming in this region in the chapter on agriculture.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS FOR INVESTIGATION
1. What is a glacier? How do glaciers affect the soil? Is the soil of your region of glacial origin?
2. What kinds of soil in your community are considered the most valuable ?
3. Is most of the soil in your community of this best type? How does the type of soil affect the value of farm lands ?
4. Are the drained lowlands more fertile than the highlands ? Why ?
5. Why should artificial drainage be used in most soils? To what extent is artificial drainage used in your community ?
6. Why is it desirable to maintain trees on steep slopes ? Brush is sometimes thrown into a gully to check washing. How does it accomplish this ?
7. Are there places in your community which illustrate loss of soil by erosion ?
8. Why is the soil of lowlands, such as bottom lands along rivers, usually more fertile than upland soil ? '
9. What was the native plant covering of the region in which you live? How much of this native plant covering remains ?
10. Are there any areas in your community which might have been more valuable if left covered by native vegetation ?
11. Make a list of the uses of the plants which you find in your community.
12. What industries in your community depend mainly upon plants for their existence? Which do not depend upon plants at all ?
13. How do bacteria affect the supply of nitrogen in soils ?
14. Why are bacteria necessary to the best growth of clover and alfalfa ?
AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS
CALDWELL and EIKENBERRY, General Science, pp. 279-327.
ATWOOD, WALLACE W., New Geography, Book Two, pp. 278-285.
CHAPTER V WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Problem I. Why people are interested in weather changes
The weather is the one subject that we all talk about. A few people converse on music or art, many discuss baseball and the movies, but all of us talk about the weather-our universal, unfailing topic of conversation. In the summer months how many people do you suppose ask one another, "Isn't it warm today?" Or on cloudy days what is the remark you are sure to hear? This abiding interest in the weather is due to the fact that its changes influence us so greatly, both in our work and play. A rainy afternoon may mean no ball game, a keen disappointment to many who live in the city because it inter- feres with their play; but that same rain may prove a boon to the farmers of the surrounding country because it aids their work. So, too, the hot days that cause us some discomfort may be the best thing in the world for growing corn. On the whole, Nature provides weather changes wisely with reference to all our activities,-for the planting, growing, and harvesting of crops, for work and study in school, as well as for skating, baseball, and swimming.
How does the weather affect your work? your play? What is the best temperature for work and play? How do weather changes influence what we wear and what we eat ?
Problem II. How the Weather Bureau makes observations and issues weather forecasts
For hundreds of years, people relied for weather information either upon their own observations or upon almanacs. The importance of having definite information about the weather led the United States government in 1870 to establish the
109
IIO
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
Weather Bureau at Washington, with two hundred regular ob- servation stations scattered over the country (Fig. 73). These stations observe the daily weather, make forecasts or predic- tions of the weather conditions that will prevail during the next twenty-four hours, and issue warnings in case of storms, frosts, and floods. The daily weather report gives the current tempera- ture, also the high and low temperature since the preceding observa- tion, the direction of the wind and its veloc- ity, and the amount of rain or snow since the last observation. These items are telegraphed to the central office at Washington and to the central forecast stations at Chicago, Denver, New Orleans, and San Francisco, FIG. 73. United States Weather Bureau Station, Columbus, Ohio where forecasts for these respective dis- tricts are made. The district forecasts are then published in the newspapers, and are . also sent out by telegraph, telephone, wireless, and mail.
In addition to weather forecasts, the larger stations distribute maps which show weather conditions in graphic form. Storm signals are displayed at 300 points along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, also on the shores of the Great Lakes, including every important port and harbor. The importance of this service to commerce can hardly be overestimated ; for example, in the case of practically every dangerous storm that has occurred on Lake Erie for many years, ample warnings have been issued from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance.
III
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Problem III. How climate is determined by three chief factors
There is a difference between weather and climate. Weather refers to the general atmospheric conditions at a definite time, including temperature, rainfall, clouds and sunshine, humidity, and winds. It varies from day to day, whereas climate denotes the prevailing conditions of the atmosphere over a period of years. Hence climate is sometimes called the average weather conditions. The three chief factors which determine the cli- mate of any region are (I) temperature, (2) rainfall, and (3) winds.
Problem IV. How the position of the sun affects the temperature of Ohio
The climate of Ohio resembles that of the other northern states of the Mississippi Basin. The fortieth parallel passes through the central part of the state, and this latitude insures long days in summer, with abundant warmth and sunshine for the growing of staple food crops. In our study of geography we learned that summer heat in this latitude is due (I) to the high altitude of the sun above the horizon, giving rays more nearly vertical, which are scattered over a smaller amount of surface; and (2) to the long days and short nights, since during the long days more heat is received than is lost during the short nights. The reverse of these conditions accounts for the low temperature of our winters, although the earth is then actually 3,000,000 miles nearer the sun than in summer.
The variation of the angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth at different times, as well as the unequal length of days and nights, is the result of the inclination of the axis on which the earth rotates as it revolves around the sun (see Fig. 74). In the position of the earth on June 21, more than one half of every parallel in the northern hemisphere is illuminated; hence the days are more than twelve hours long and the nights corre- spondingly shorter. In the latitude of Ohio the sun is 72 de- grees above the horizon on June 21, and this day has the most
II2
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
sunshine of the entire year. On December 21 the sun is only 25 degrees above the horizon, and this is the shortest day of the year.
July, our warmest month, has 461 hours of sunshine. How- ever, it is well to remember that these hours of sunshine are interfered with by clouds and storms. In Cleveland the total hours of possible sunshine for the entire year are 4457, but the
March 21
June 21
S
Dec. 22
Sept. 22
FIG. 74. Diagram showing position of the earth with reference to the sun on four dates of the year. The apparent changes in the sun's position are due to the movement of the earth around the sun and to the inclination of the earth's axis. We say that the sun rises and sets, but the fact is that these apparent changes are due to the motion of the earth
actual hours of sunshine in one year were 2367. The summer days are 18 minutes longer in northern Ohio than in southern Ohio because of the difference in latitude, while the winter days are 12 minutes shorter in northern Ohio. The temperature of a place varies not only with the sunshine but with the presence of clouds and storms which shut off the hours of possible sunshine.
Which months have the most suitable temperature for out- door work? Why not play baseball in the fall and football in the spring ?
II3
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Problem V. How changes in temperature affect farming and other occupations
The average annual temperature for the state of Ohio as a whole is about 51 degrees. The highest temperature is 55 de- grees in the Ohio Valley near Cincinnati and Portsmouth. The
Growing Season
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug. Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Temp.
78
O
74
70
0
66
62
58
54
C
50
AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURES
C
46
At Cincinnati
42° 0
At Cleveland
38°
34°
Frost Line 32°
30°
26
AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL IN OHIO
= 1 inch
FIG. 75. Average monthly temperatures in Cleveland and Cincinnati and average monthly rainfall in Ohio
coldest portions of the state are in Lake and Portage counties, with an average annual temperature of 48 degrees. Can you explain the reason for the difference in temperature between northern and southern Ohio?
The land south of Lake Erie has its extremes in temperature modified by the lake influence. Water absorbs heat more
II4
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
slowly than the land, and a hot day in summer is warmer a short distance inland than over the lake. In winter the water holds the heat which has been absorbed and gives it out slowly. The late fall days are warmer nearer the lake than inland. Hence the lake region has a more uniform temperature for the growing season. This modifying effect of the lake upon the temperature determines the fruit-growing belt, which is located along the southern shore of Lake Erie. The winter and sum- mer temperatures of the lake cities are not so extreme as the interior cities. (See graph, Fig. 75.)
July is our warmest and January our coldest month, taking the average for a long period of years. The greatest variation in temperature is in the months of January and February. The winter thaws come with warm south winds, and are followed by cold waves bringing full winds and low temperatures. These rapid changes in temperature affect the health in a marked degree. Colds, chills, pneumonia, influenza, and diphtheria are prevalent during this season, and the general efficiency of people is considerably lowered.
Frosts determine the growing season for all crops. After the last spring frosts the planting begins. The growing season ex- tends to the first fall frost. Find the date of the last spring frost and the first fall frost in your locality, and determine the number of days in the growing season. The shortest growing season in Ohio is in the highlands of Trumbull, Mahoning, and Columbiana counties. Southern Ohio has an average growing season of from 160 to 170 days, while the land on the southern shore of Lake Erie has a growing season of from 180 to 200 days. The fall frosts occur in October, but the influence of Lake Erie delays the effects for more than two weeks, thus protecting the fruit and other late fall crops. The change of temperature from summer to winter causes many changes in occupations. Lake navigation closes, farm labor decreases, and other outdoor occupations are temporarily discontinued.
For how long a period is navigation on Lake Erie closed by ice each year ? How does winter temperature affect the work of the mason? of the carpenter ? of the painter ?
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
II5
Problem VI. How rainfall influences Ohio's agriculture
The moisture of the atmosphere is essential to all animals and plants, for without it no life could exist. Everywhere in
84°
83º
82°
81º
E
42°
I
12
R
X
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L
K
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FULTON
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WILLIAMS
x
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40
36
GEAUGA
x
X
X
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SANDUSKY
ERIE
LORAIN
×
38
X
X
x
PORTAGE
PAULDING
SENECA
X
X
X
PUTNAM
HANCOCK
×
38
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WYANDOT
X
WAYNE
STARK
COLUMBIANA I
ALLEN x
38.
X
X
X
X
x
..
X
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MARION
40
28
HOLMES
X
MORROW
34
X
LOGAN
X
SHELBY
UNION
DELAWARE
36
COSHOCTON
X
DARKE
CHAMPAIGN
X
IX
MIAMI
40°
FRANKLIN
X
X
×
CLARK X
36
X
X
PERRY
GREENE
36
PICKAWAY
MORGAN
FAYETTE
X
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BUTLER
CLINTON
x
X
x
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S
ATHENS
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HAMILTON
x
38
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x
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Ohio
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LAWRENCE
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83°
82
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X
X
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x
X
A
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ASHTABULA:
X
CRA
E
E
FIG. 76. Rainfall map of Ohio
The lines pass through points which have equal precipitation. The figures are for depth of water in inches
the world, even in desert regions, the atmosphere contains some moisture; and anything that will cool the air so as to cause it to condense its moisture will produce rainfall. Moisture fur- nishes the rain and snow which supply all springs and rivers,
x U.S. Weather Bureau Rainfall Station
39
WASHINGTON
River
X
WOOD
II6
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
and moisture helps to absorb the heat radiated from the sun and the earth. All of the moisture that comes to the surface of the earth in the form of rain, snow, fog, dew, hail, or sleet is called rainfall. Rainfall is measured by catching the rain in a vessel with vertical sides and measuring the depth of the
3
FIG. 77. Snow scene in a Cleveland park
Is the snowfall along the shore of Lake Erie heavier or lighter than in central Ohio?
water. If the moisture is in the form of snow the snow is melted, and the measure of the water thus obtained is counted as rainfall. An annual rainfall of 50 inches is considered large, and at least 20 inches is usually necessary to insure good crops.
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