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In Ohio the average annual rainfall is 37 inches, of which one seventh falls in the form of snow. As may be seen from the map (Fig. 76), this rainfall is not uniformly distributed. The heaviest rainfall occurs along a portion of the Ohio River, and also in the extreme northeastern section of the state. The least
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rainfall is in the southwestern corner of the state and on the Lake Plain. Portsmouth on the Ohio River has an average annual rainfall of 57.5 inches; Toledo, located a few miles from Lake Erie, reports an annual average of 31.7 inches.
June and July are the rainiest months of the year, September and October the driest. One half of the rain falls during the growing season, a condition favorable to agriculture (see Fig. 75). Ohio's principal farm crop, corn, is closely dependent upon rainfall. If the rainfall in July is less than three inches the corn yield is 30 bushels to the acre, whereas if the July rainfall is five inches or more the corn yield is 38 bushels to the acre. At the present market price of corn, what difference would this make to the farmer who grows one hundred acres of corn ?
The snowfall in Ohio is always heaviest in the highlands of northeastern Ohio (Fig. 77), and least in the lowest portion of the Ohio Valley. The melting of the snow combined with rain- fall sometimes gives rise to destructive floods along the Ohio River and its tributaries.
Problem VII. How Ohio is guarding against floods
Ohio has suffered much from destructive floods. Especially was the flood of 1913 one that did great damage. This flood was particularly disastrous in the Miami Valley section, but was by no means confined to this locality. It was more or less general throughout the state. The cities that suffered most were Dayton, Hamilton, Piqua, Troy, Middletown, Franklin, and Miamisburg, all located in the Miami Valley, and Tiffin in the northwestern part of the state. In Dayton the river rose to 29 feet, which is II feet above the average high water of the river. To prevent the recurrence of floods in the Miami Valley, an extensive system of dams and reservoirs has been constructed to control the surplus water (Figs. 78, 79). The estimated cost of this construction is $33,000,000, which is less than one half the damage done in Ohio in three days of 1913. The future floods in the Miami Conservancy District will be controlled by a system of levees and reservoirs.
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
Problem VIII. How winds affect our daily weather
Air in motion is spoken of as wind. Wind is the most vary- ing of all weather elements. It is constantly shifting its direc- tion. Ohio is located in the belt of prevailing westerlies, or winds which commonly blow from the southwest. In these winds there are whirling storms called the "high" and "low"
FIG. 78. The Germantown dam, below Dayton, Ohio
This picture shows the process by which dams are constructed. The material is being dumped from railroad cars into the "hog box," where hydraulic giants playing upon the mass wash it to the dredge pumps. These dredge pumps, located in the buildings at the left of the picture, pick up this material together with the water, and pump it all through 15-inch pipe lines into the embankment of the dam
areas, and they are so named from the barometric pressure of the atmosphere at their centers. The low areas have a low air pressure as indicated by the barometer, and the high areas have a high air pressure. These areas move from west to east across the United States at the rate of about 600 miles each day, and they cause important changes in our weather. When a low area passes over Ohio the weather is warmer and cloudy, generally with some precipitation. The high area brings a lower temper- ature, with a clear sky. These weather changes are stimulating
FIG. 79. The completed Germantown dam, below Dayton, Ohio
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
and generally enjoyable, except when the high area brings a cold wave or blizzard, or when the low area brings a hot wave.
Ohio's lake district has a land and sea breeze in the summer, while in the deeper, narrow valleys of southeastern Ohio there is a distinct valley breeze. The fruit orchards on the slope of the valleys of southeastern Ohio are protected from frosts by the cold-air drainage which carries the cold air to the lower parts of the valley. Windstorms frequently do considerable damage to telephone and telegraph lines, but Ohio does not have the heavy windstorms which sometimes cause havoc on the western plains.
The Weather Bureau carefully observes the progress of storms across the United States. When a threatening storm approaches the Great Lakes all vessels are notified by wireless, and in this way lives and property are saved from destruction. The storm warnings are also the means of saving perishable products which are in transit on the railroads or interurbans.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS FOR INVESTIGATION
1. Is the distance from the sun in your locality the same in the morning as at noon ?
2. How can you account for differences in temperature between morning and noon, and noon and evening ?
3. Of what value are weather reports to your neighborhood ?
4. What causes the hot waves that sometimes 'sweep over large portions of the Mississippi Valley ?
5. Study a rainfall map of the United States and determine the relation between the regions of greatest rainfall and the regions of greatest crop production.
6. Why is it important to crops that the rainfall should be dis- tributed over the entire year ?
7. Why may one shore of a lake be much better for fruit- growing than another ?
AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS
ATWOOD, WALLACE W., New Geography, Book Two, pp. 268-276. CALDWELL and EIKENBERRY, General Science, chs. III, IV, XII.
CHAPTER VI AGRICULTURE
Problem I. How the early settlers met the conditions of pioneer life
Ohio was settled by farmers. Our early pioneers came here to establish homes in the wilderness. To do this they had many hardships to endure and many difficulties to overcome. Dense forests covered the entire state, and these had to be removed before the soil could be cultivated. Indians and wild animals often endangered the settlers.
The early forests furnished material for cabins, fences, and fuel, but after these were supplied the timber was of very little value to the pioneer farmer. He found it necessary to fell the large trees of oak, maple, ash, walnut, elm, and hickory, then cut them into logs which were rolled into heaps and burned. These logs, if available today, would be of great value. As it is, the forests of Ohio yield less than one fourth of the entire amount of hard wood necessary for our building and domestic uses. No one who lives today can appreciate the hard labor that the early farmer gave to clearing and prepar- ing the land for cultivation. To the sturdy backwoodsmen who established homes and created farms we owe a great debt of gratitude.
Early farming in Ohio was crude and on a limited scale. Live stock consisted of cows, horses, hogs, and sheep. The early settlers gave less care to these animals than is given today, not from choice but because it was impossible to care for them as we do. The sheep were in constant danger from dogs and wild animals. Oxen were used for such heavy work as drawing the plow, rolling logs, and dragging the heavy wagons, sleds, or stone boats over almost impassable roads.
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I22 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
The early farms were small, usually consisting of from three to five acres of cleared land in the midst of the woods. Each little farm was made to produce the food and clothing needed for the family. What foods did these pioneer families have ? Flax and hemp were frequently grown, to be mixed with wool
FIG. 80. Pioneer log cabin
Except for the roof, which has been rebuilt, this is a typical log cabin of pioneer days. After looking at this picture, read the description of the early log cabin in the text
and cotton for clothing. Skins of wild animals were used for caps, mittens, boots, and coats. The farmer or some traveling shoemaker made the shoes for the entire family.
The pioneer home was a log cabin, usually located near a spring, and if possible near a trail or road. The first cabins were built of round logs or of roughly squared timbers (Fig. 80). The cracks between the logs were chinked with wedges of wood and daubed with clay. The roof was covered by clapboards or by thatch supported by poles. A log shutter was fixed at the
-
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AGRICULTURE
opening left for a window, and a bark door hung on straps com- pleted the home. A platform about two feet high placed along the wall and supported at the outer edge by strong posts formed a bedstead, while hemlock boughs served for the mattress. It was not a soft one, but there was a popular frontier saying that "a hard day's work makes a soft bed."
The kitchen, which was also the living room, was the most cheerful and homelike room in the house. Its most attractive feature was the kitchen fireplace. In all the early houses im- mense chimneys were built, usually of stone, and whole logs could be burned on the andirons within the spacious fire- place. Sometimes there were seats within the chimney on either side, where the entire family could sit and watch the sparks fly up the chimney. The primitive method of roasting was to suspend the joint of meat in front of the fire by a cord tied to a peg in the ceiling; from time to time, the housewife or one of the children would twist the string so as to turn the roast around.
The houses were lighted at night by means of tallow candles made at home in tin or pewter molds. During the day, light came in through the windows which were covered in early days with oiled paper, afterwards with panes of glass. The cabin floor was sanded. The furniture was made of rough slabs of wood. From this you can readily see that the many comforts and conveniences of the modern home which we enjoy today were entirely unknown to the pioneers. They knew no such things as the modern furnace, the modern piano and the still more modern phonograph, or similar comforts and conveniences.
Problem II. How agriculture in Ohio was influenced by the older regions from which the settlers came
The settlers in this Ohio country came from New England, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucky, and New Jersey. Whole families migrated together for protection and company. They brought with them their customs and habits of life. Thus the
0
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
New Englanders started dairying and cheese-making; the Vir- ginians brought their customs and habits to southern Ohio from their native state. Hillsboro, Manchester, and Chillicothe still show the influences of the Old Dominion settlers. The men who came from the Kentucky hill regions brought tobacco culture to southwestern Ohio, and this has remained a leading industry of that section. Who were the early settlers of your county?
FIG. 81. Typical pasture scene in Ashtabula County
The dairying industry which the early settlers brought to Ohio is carried on exten- sively in the northern part of the state. What breed of cattle is shown here? Note the old-time rail fence in the background, and the modern wire fence in the foreground of the picture
The Pennsylvania Dutch were engaged chiefly in raising live stock and in growing wheat, hence they brought these occupations to the new Ohio country. Many other settlers came from Pennsylvania to Monroe, Tuscarawas, and Holmes counties. Among these were the Swiss, who brought their home industry, that of cheese-making. Is this industry still to be found in these counties ? To the Western Reserve came the Connecticut Yankees. What type of farming did they bring to Ohio ?
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AGRICULTURE
Problem III. How agriculture has been influenced by the physical features of Ohio
The physical regions affecting Ohio agriculture are (1) the Lake Plain (northern and northwestern section), (2) the Alle- gheny Plateau (eastern and southeastern section), and (3) the Central Piain (central and southwestern section). Whether Acres
4,000,000
3,000,000
Wheat
--
Corn
Hay
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
FIG. 82. Wheat, corn, and hay acreage in Ohio from 1850 to 1920
the early farmer settled in the Lake Plain section, the Allegheny Plateau, or the Central Plain, he learned from experience that soil and climate have a large influence on the results of his labor. The Ohio farmer of today is adding to the fund of knowledge already gained by the study of agriculture as a science. He selects his crops with care, endeavoring to choose those adapted to the soil and climate of his locality.
I. THE LAKE PLAIN
The soil of the Lake Plain is the result of rich lake deposits left by Lake Erie as it gradually receded. The Lake Plain in the northwestern part of Ohio is level, with here and there ridges of sand and gravel. This is one of the best farm sections of the state and is well adapted to the growing of small grain, sugar beets, corn, and garden truck. Along the southern shore
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
of Lake Erie the peach, grape, apple, and pear thrive. The climatic conditions of this region contribute to the successful growing of orchards (Fig. 83). Why?
2. THE ALLEGHENY PLATEAU
In many places the Allegheny Plateau of northeastern Ohio is more than 500 feet above Lake Erie. The heavy clay soil
FIG. 83. Cherry trees in blossom
This picture shows a portion of the famous Farnsworth Grove at Waterville, Lucas County. Cherry trees thrive best in a loamy soil, preferably with a southern ex- posure. How does the value of Ohio's cherry crop compare with that of other orchard fruits ?
of this section is not well adapted to the growing of grains, but is suitable for pasture land and hay. This section has many fine dairy herds. Why?
The hill-and-valley section of the Allegheny Plateau lies along the Ohio River. Its surface is too steep for the successful growing of crops, but a considerable portion is cultivated in spite of this handicap. The soils of this section vary with the rock underlying the surface. Sheep-raising, cattle-fattening, fruit-growing, and truck-farming predominate here. In the val- leys there is also a good yield of corn, wheat, oats, and tobacco.
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AGRICULTURE
3. THE CENTRAL PLAIN
The Central Plain, embracing central and southwestern Ohio, consists of rolling glaciated land with broad, fertile river valleys. The soils are rich clay loam with heavy, dark muck soil in the depres- sions and river val- leys. Under much of this there is an underlying limestone rock formation. This particular section of the state is the part best suited to grain, tobacco, and stock- raising. The valleys of the Miami and the Scioto are excep- tionally fertile and grow immense crops. Throughout all this section, factories of various kinds have been established in E G order to aid in mar- FIG. 84. Types of wheat keting farm prod- A, Spelt; B, Einkorn; C, Common Fultz; D, Club; E, Polish; F, Durum; G, Black Winter Emmer. Nearly 90 per cent of the wheat grown in this country is of the Common Fultz type. (From Waters's "The Essentials of Agriculture") ucts. Name some of these factories and their products.
Problem IV. How agriculture has been aided by labor- saving machinery
Annually there is held at the Ohio State University a tractor show and a splendid exhibit of farm machinery. The pioneer farmer saw no exhibits. He was forced to do his work with
1
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
the simplest kind of tools (Fig. 85). The ax and the grubbing hoe were used in clearing away the trees and the brush. The new ground was broken with a wooden-beam plow, after which potatoes, corn, and turnips were planted among the stumps. Wheat, rye, and oats were sown broadcast. When ripened these
FIG. 85. Reaping wheat with the cradle
As late as the middle of the nineteenth century, farm machinery was almost un- known. Wheat was sown broadcast by hand as in Bible days, and was reaped by means of the cradle as shown in this illustration. In 1830 it required three hours of man's labor to produce a bushel of wheat; in 1896 it required only ten minutes. When our forefathers were clearing the forests and fighting the Indians, a peck of wheat was a fair yearly allowance for an entire family. Today each person in the United States consumes on an average between five and six bushels of wheat each year. This increase in the amount of wheat raised has been brought about by the use of machinery and improved methods of agriculture
grains were cut with a sickle and bound by hand into sheaves. Afterwards the grain was threshed out with a flail and cleaned of chaff by tossing it into the air. This method is in marked contrast to the way work is done on the farm today (Fig. 86). There are no stumps with which to contend. These have been removed, and the farmer now breaks the ground with a gang plow drawn by horse power or by a tractor. The seed is sown with the drill or like farm implement, and the crop is cut by means of the harvester and threshed by the threshing machine.
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AGRICULTURE
Besides being a self-feeder, the modern thresher weighs the grain and at the same time blows the straw into the stack.
Gradually the primitive methods of farming gave way to modern, scientific methods. The year 1850 is the approximate date which marks the beginning of modern agriculture. By
FIG. 86. Harvesting barley in Franklin County
The barley plant resembles the wheat plant but differs in the structure of the head and generally does not grow so tall. Barley thrives best on a well-drained loam soil, and is preferably grown after a hoed crop like corn. For what is it chiefly used? How does the value of Ohio's barley crop compare with that of other cereals ?
that time roads had become fairly well established, although not well built. Farm machinery was being rapidly improved, and many new agricultural implements were first tried out in the Ohio fields. Then, too, better methods of farming were being used. The care of well-bred stock and the raising of animals for the market, the growing of special crops like onions, celery, sugar beets, and sweet corn, require special skill and knowledge. To meet these requirements we now have courses in agriculture and animal husbandry at the state experiment station and university. Today the Ohio State University gives
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
extension courses in agriculture to farmers throughout the state. This enables the farmer to use his spare time, especially in the winter months, in the scientific study of his own work.
By the use of improved machinery and more scientific farm- ing methods, we have gradually increased the number of acres
Millions of dollars
50
100
150
200
Corn
Hay
Wheat
Oats
Potatoes
Tobacco
Sugar Beets.
Barley
Rye
FIG. 87. Value of Ohio's nine leading farm crops
of land under cultivation. Today less than 8 per cent of Ohio's farm land is uncultivated, and we have 256,000 farms, or more than twice as many as in 1850.
How does the value of Ohio farms of today compare with that of twenty years ago? What has contributed to this increase in acreage and in farm values ?
Problem V. How manufacturing became Ohio's leading industry instead of agriculture
The importance of the farm and its work cannot be over- estimated. We are dependent upon the farmer for such neces- sities as food and clothing, as well as for many of the comforts of life. His is a life of arduous toil, but one of freedom and independence. "The farmer's life offers the greatest oppor- tunity for expression of individuality that exists in any vocation.
MICH.
L
KI
IND.
KY.
KE ERIE
PA.
W. VA.
RELIEF MAP OF OHIO SHOWING AREAS OF THE SEVEN LARGEST CITIES
Scale of miles 0 5 10 25 50 75
W. T.Oliver
(C) Ginn and Company
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AGRICULTURE
Matters of personality, of efficiency, and of organizing and busi- ness ability are more directly expressed in the returns he re- ceives and in the direct sense of accomplishment he experiences than in any other line of endeavor. The man in this industry who is alert, quick, wide-awake, and observant is more com- pletely appreciated than in any other industry, for he must discover his needs and gain his rewards through close associa- tion with each of the manifold phases of nature. There is no one to tell him the things to do except himself, and the direct measure of his own results is his best reward."
Notwithstanding the advantages of farm life, as the popula- tion of Ohio increased from early days the people turned more and more to other industries, and this tendency grew as popu- lation increased. In 1850 about three fourths of the people of Ohio were on the farm. Today only about one third of Ohio's workers are engaged in farm pursuits. Manufacturing and transportation employ nearly twice as many workers as agricul- ture. We shall understand more about the reasons for this change in occupations when we study the development of transportation and manufactures. .
Problem VI. How far Ohio agriculture aids in providing the nation's food supply
CORN, OUR GREAT STAPLE CROP
Corn is Ohio's oldest grain. Just how old corn itself may be no one knows. It is certain that the Mound Builders stored corn in primitive cellars, and that corn was the principal food crop of the Indians. The native red men understood its culti- vation so well that the early pioneers in our state followed their method of cultivation.
After the site for the log cabin had been selected and the home built, the settlers cleared away a spot of land and planted flint corn among the stumps. In many cases the seed for planting was obtained from the Indians. When the corn was ripe the stocks were not cut, but the ears were jerked and
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
stored in the cabin for use. From this you will see that the chief use of the corn crop to the farmer was to furnish food for his family. Today the corn crop of Ohio is used for a different purpose, serving chiefly as food for the animals on the farm.
At the present time corn is still Ohio's most valuable crop. It is more widely grown and represents a larger money return than any other farm crop (see Fig. 87). The acreage of corn land in the state today is almost twice as great as in 1850 (see Fig. 82). In 1920 Ohio produced 160,000,000 bushels of corn, or about 30 bushels to each individual in the state. The western half of the state produces about 75 per cent of the corn raised in Ohio. Why?
Notwithstanding the large production of corn, Ohio does not produce enough for its own live stock and food consumption. Hence corn is sent in from other states. At present every effort is being made to grow more corn in Ohio. Perhaps you have been interested in some of the corn-growing contests that have taken place in your part of the state.
What are the corn clubs attempting to do? How? Why?
WHEAT
The first wheat was planted in the state in 1789, by the New England settlers at Marietta. For a number of years only a local supply was produced. There was no market for it, hence the price was very low. In 1822 wheat was 20 cents per bushel, and actually sold in Cleveland at as low a price as Io cents. With the opening up of the Erie Canal, and the con- struction of Ohio canals and railroads, wheat found a market, and the price has since been regulated by supply and demand. In 1918 and 1919, during the World War, wheat sold in Ohio at more than $3 per bushel.
Something has already been said of the harvesting of wheat by hand. The sickle gave way to the cradle and the cradle in turn to the reaper, which cut the wheat and dropped the bundle unbound. This was followed in turn by the modern self-binder, which not only binds the sheaves but collects the
FIG. 88. Weekley's improved dent corn
This type of corn receives its name from the small dent at the summit of each grain. Three other types of corn are commonly grown in the United States: these are the flint, sweet, and pop corn. (From Waters's "The Essentials of Agriculture")
FIG. 89. Husking and shredding corn in Darke County
What motive power is used to drive the shredder ? What are the advantages in shredding corn ?
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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF OHIO
bundles so that they are ready to be shocked by the farm hand. A good cradler in the early days could cut three or four acres a day. In 1850 there were very few wheat drills used in Ohio, and only about twenty binders. At the present day no farm is equipped that does not have a wheat drill and self-binder.
FIG. 90. Threshing scene in Marion County
The tractor serves a wide variety of purposes on the farm. It is used not only for threshing as shown here, but also as the motive power in plowing, harrowing, and hauling grain. Most farm tractors are fitted with gasoline engines and use gasoline for fuel. The tractor shown in this picture is the wheeled tractor, the most common type. Another type-the crawler or caterpillar tractor-is sometimes used on sandy or marshy soil. The tanks which played such an important part in the World War were developed from this caterpillar tractor
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