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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABBOTT, EDITH .- Immigration; select documents and case records (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1924)-Contains reprints of early Massachu- setts immigration acts, and similar material from other States.
ABBOTT, EDITH .- "A Study of the Early History of Child Labor in America" (American Journal of Sociology, 1908, Vol. XIV, pp. 15- 37)-The best compilation on this subject.
ADAMS, HENRY .- History of the United States of America from 1801 to 1817 (9 vols., N. Y. Scribner's, 1891-1901)-See Vols. I-IV for the period of Jefferson's first and second administrations, 1801-1809. Vols. V-IX cover Madison's administrations, 1809-1817. The opening chapters of Vol. I give a detailed description of social life of the period.
ADAMS, JAMES TRUSLOW .- New England in the Republic 1776-1850 (Bos- ton, Little, Brown, 1926)-Chapters II-VI deal with the effects of the Revolutionary War and the spirit of unrest, as also chapters VIII- x and XIII-XVI.
ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY .- Life in a New England Town: 1787, 1788. Diary, while a Student in the Office of Theophilus Parsons at Newburyport (Boston, Little, Brown, 1903)-Life as seen by a cultured young man, who takes life rather seriously.
ADAMS, SAMUEL .- Writings (4 vols., N. Y., Putnam's, 1904-08) -Edited by H. A. Cook. The wholesome, emphatic, but sometimes mistaken, attitudes of a vigorous, sincere, and useful public servant. See especially the criticism of pomp on pp. 236 and 315 of Vol. IV.
BABCOCK, KENDRIC CHARLES .- The Rise of American Nationality, 1811- 1819 (N. Y., Harper, 1906).
BASSETT, JOHN SPENCER .- The Federalist System, 1789-1801 (N. Y., Harper, 1906).
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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
BEARD, CHARLES .- Rise of American Civilization (N. Y., Macmillan, 1927) -The breadth of interest of the writer and his serious attempts at interpretation render this a book which should be studied by all persons interested in American social policy.
BEST, HARRY .- The Blind; their Condition and the Work Being Done for them in the United States (N. Y., Macmillan, 1919)-The historical section is brief. This is the most comprehensive American textbook on the blind.
BEVERIDGE, ALBERT JEREMIAH .- The Life of John Marshall (4 vols., Bos- ton, Houghton Mifflin, 1916-19)-See Vol. I, chap. VII, "Community Isolation"; a penetrating study of the effect of isolation upon attitudes and policy.
BRISSOT, DE WARVILLE, JACQUES PIERRE .- Nouveau voyage dans Les États- Unis de l'Amérique Septentrionale, fait en 1788 (3 vols., Paris, Buis- son, 1791)-The best and the most complimentary of contemporary travel records by foreigners.
BUGBEE, JAMES MCKELLAR .- The City Government of Boston (Johns Hop- kins Studies in Historical and Political Science, Fifth Series, No. 3, Balto., 1887)-A useful history of the transition from the town meeting to the city form of government.
CALHOUN, ARTHUR WALLACE .- A Social History of the American Family from Colonial Times to the Present (3 vols., Cleveland, Clark, 1917- 1919)-Useful quotations from contemporary reports on the family, and on the problems of woman and child labor.
CHAFFIN, WILLIAM LADD .- History of the Town of Easton, Massachusetts (Cambridge, Wilson, 1886).
CHAMBERLAIN, MELLEN .- A Documentary History of Chelsea, 1624-1824 (2 vols., Boston, Mass. Historical Society, 1908).
CHANNING, EDWARD .- A History of the United States (6 vols., N. Y ... Macmillan, 1919-1925)-See Vol. V. "The Period of Transition," 1815-48.
CHANNING, EDWARD .- The Jeffersonian System, 1801-1811 (N. Y., Harper, 1906).
CHANNING, EDWARD, HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL, and TURNER, FREDERICK JACKSON .- Guide to the Study and Reading of American History (Boston, Ginn, 1912)-Indispensable.
CHASTELLUX, FRANÇOIS JEAN, MARQUIS DE .- Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781 and 1782 (2 vols., London, Robinson, 1787)- Translated by G. Grieve. A useful critique of the social life of 1780. Volume II includes Massachusetts.
CLAFLIN, MRS. MARY BUCKLIN (DAVENPORT) .- Brampton Sketches; Old- time New England Life (N. Y., Crowell, 1890)-Life in the village of Hopkinton, Mass., in the early nineteenth century.
CLARK, VICTOR SELDEN .- History of Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860 (Carnegie Institution, Publications, No. 215B, Washington, D. C., 1916)-A useful compendium, giving much space to Massa- chusetts industries, wages, and labor conditions.
COOK, FRANK GAYLORD .- "Theophilus Parsons, 1750-1813" (W. D. LEWIS, editor, Great American Lawyers, 8 vols., Phila., Winston, 1907-1909)- See Vol. II, pp. 49-97. Outlines limitations of law, legal training, and judicial procedure.
524 SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND CHANGES
DWIGHT, TIMOTHY .- Travels; in New England and New York (4 vols., New Haven, Dwight, 1821-1822)-Careful observations by a univer- sity president. His remarks on city planning were a century ahead of his times.
EMERSON, GEORGE BURRELL .- Education in Massachusetts: Early Legisla- tion and History; a lecture (Boston, Wilson, 1869).
FORD, ANDREW ELMER .- History of the Origin of the Town of Clinton, Massachusetts, 1653-1865 (Clinton, Coulter, 1896)-A useful account of labor, wages and industrial housing in 1815. See especially page 149.
HALE, GEORGE SILSBEE .- "The Charities of Boston" (JUSTIN WINSOR, Memorial History of Boston, Boston, Osgood, 1882-1886)-See Vol. IV, chap. XIII. An excellent detailed account of private charities in Boston from 1657 to 1880.
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL .- American History Told by Contemporaries (4 vols., N. Y., Macmillan, 1897-1901)-Volume III contains many useful documents of this period.
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL, editor .- American Patriots and Statesmen, from Washington to Lincoln (5 vols., N. Y., Collier, 1916).
HAYNES, GIDEON .- Pictures from Prison Life. An Historical Sketch of the Massachusetts State Prison. With Narratives and Incidents, and Suggestions on Discipline (Boston, Lee & Shepard, 1869)-A detailed account from 1805 on.
HEYWOOD, WILLIAM SWEETZER .- History of Westminster, Massachusetts, 1728-1893 (Lowell, Mass., Huse, 1893)-Unusually detailed description of social life.
HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT .- History of Western Massachusetts (2 vols., Springfield, Bowles, 1855).
HOSMER, JAMES KENDALL .- Samuel Adams (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin, 1899)-An excellent study of one of the leading public servants in the last years of the eighteenth century.
HOWES, FREDERICK G .- History of the Town of Ashfield, Franklin County, Massachusetts, 1742-1910 (Ashfield, 191 -? ).
KELSO, ROBERT WILSON .- The History of Public Poor Relief in Massa- chusetts, 1620-1920 (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1922)-A scholarly exposition of the development of our system of poor relief and public welfare.
LARCOM, LUCY .- A New England Girlhood, Outlined from Memory (Bos- ton, Houghton Mifflin, 1899).
MASSACHUSETTS (Commonwealth) : GENERAL COURT .- Resolves (Boston, October, 1780-April, 1838).
MASSACHUSETTS (Commonwealth). GENERAL COURT, 1821. COMMITTEE ON PAUPER LAWS .- Report of the Committee to Whom was Referred the Consideration of the Pauper Laws of this Commonwealth (Boston, 1821)-Josiah Quincy was chairman. Reprinted in Charities, 1899, Vol. III.
MASSACHUSETTS. (Commonwealth). GENERAL COURT, 1835. COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN PAUPERS .- Report of the Select Committee to Whom was Referred the Subject of the Practicability of Preventing the Intro- duction of Foreign Paupers into the State (Boston, 1835)-James Boyd was chairman.
MASSACHUSETTS (Commonwealth). GENERAL COURT, 1836. COMMITTEE ON PAUPER LAWS .- Report Relating to State Paupers (Boston, 1836)- Joseph T. Buckingham was chairman.
525
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
MASSACHUSETTS HISTORICAL SOCIETY .- Collections (Boston, 1792, and later years).
MINOT, GEORGE RICHARDS .- The History of the Insurrections in Massa- chusetts in the Year Seventeen Hundred and Eighty Six. And the Rebellion Consequent thereon (Boston, Burditt, 1810).
MIXER, KNOWLTON .- Old Houses of New England (N. Y., Macmillan, 1927).
MOORE, GEORGE HENRY .- Notes on the History of Slavery in Massachu- setts (N. Y., Appleton, 1866).
NOURSE, HENRY STEDMAN .- History of the Town of Harvard, Massachu- setts, 1732-1893 (Harvard, Hapgood, 1894).
PARRINGTON, VERNON LOUIS .- The Colonial Mind, 1620-1800 (N. Y., Har- court, Brace, 1927)-See especially "Book III: Liberalism and the Constitution."
QUINCY, JOSIAH .- Remarks on Some of the Provisions of the Laws of Massachusetts affecting Poverty, Vice and Crime; Being the General Topics of a Charge to the Grand Jury of the County at Suffolk, in March Term, 1822 (Cambridge, Hilliard & Metcalf, 1822).
QUINCY, JOSIAH PHILLIPS .- "Social Life in Boston : from the Adoption of the Federal Constitution to the Granting of the City Charter" (Jus- TIN WINSOR, The Memorial History of Boston, 4 vols., Boston, Os- good, 1882-1886)-See Vol. IV, chap. I; an account chiefly of the interests of the well-to-do.
SIEBERT, WILBUR HENRY .- The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom (N. Y., Macmillan, 1898).
TUCKERMAN, JOSEPH .- On the Elevation of the Poor (Boston, Roberts, 1874).
WARREN, CHARLES .- A History of the American Bar (Boston, Little, Brown, 1911).
WASHBURN, EMORY .- "Slavery as it once Prevailed in Massachusetts" (MASSACHUSETTS HISTORICAL SOCIETY, Lectures Delivered in a Course before the Lowell Institute by Members of the Massachusetts His- torical Society, Boston, 1869)-See pp. 191-225.
WATSON, FRANK DEKKER .-- The Charity Organization Movement in the United States (N. Y., Macmillan, 1922)-Useful to show the place of Massachusetts in the development of private charities.
WEEDEN, WILLIAM BABCOCK .- Economic and Social History of New Eng- land (2 vols., Boston, Houghton, Mifflin, 1890)-The most useful compilation on social life in Massachusetts in this and earlier periods.
WHEELWRIGHT, WILLIAM BOND .- Life and Times of Alvah Crocker (Bos- ton, Walton Advertising and Printing Co., 1923)-See chap. I.
WILLIAMS, GEORGE WASHINGTON .- History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1800 (2 vols., N. Y., Putnam's, 1883).
CHAPTER XVIII
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY (1789 - 1820)
BY RUHL J. BARTLETT Assistant Professor of History, Tufts College
THE SITUATION AT THE END OF THE WAR
The boom of guns at Lexington and Concord announced the close of the first great period in the maritime history of Massachusetts. For a time American merchant ships were almost driven from the seas; fleet schooners, sturdy fishing boats, and craft of all kind sought refuge in their native har- bors, either to remain idle or to be refitted as privateersmen. Massachusetts furnished more than her share of the latter. "It was but a short time," declares one writer, "until lines and tubes had given place to cutlasses and swivels; out of sound- ing-lead bullets had been melted; the hold of vessels, once filled with salt and fish, furnished commodious quarters for a score or two of fighting seamen; barvels had been exchanged for American uniforms for men who were as eager now to train their guns upon British men-of-war as they had been but a few weeks before to cast their lines on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland." The activity of Massachusetts in this mode of warfare is discussed in detail in another chapter of this volume. It is shown by the fact that the Continental Congress issued six hundred and twenty-seven letters of marque to her vessels; and the General Court issued a greater number. For a time profits were realized; but by the close of the war few indeed were the white sails that dotted the harbors along the coast of Massachusetts. Newburyport, for example, lost no less than twenty-two ships and over one thousand men. In 1783 four fishing vessels left Chatham harbor in place of the twenty-seven sturdy craft which had lined her wharfs a dec- ade earlier. The vessels of Marblehead were reduced from
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SLOW RECOVERY
12,000 in 1772 to 1,500 in 1780, and of the whaling fleets of Dartmouth and Nantucket, only four or five remained out of two hundred sail. The situation at the close of the war is well stated by McFarland as follows :-
"The fishing industry had been shaken to its foundations by a decade of inactivity and suspension. There had been a rapid and disastrous depreciation of the property used for the furtherance of fishing interests. Wharves had fallen into decay, mainly through lack of trade to keep them in repair. Many vessels, too, had become valueless for the same reason ; others had been employed in the privateering service, never to return as fishing vessels. Flakes and other shore apparatus used in curing fish had long since disappeared. Men, too, had lost the habit of their old vocation in following varying for- tunes of service in the army and navy. The younger genera- tion of boys had received little training in the shore fisheries, such as their fathers had, and none of them acquired practical experience in grand deep sea fishing by a trip to the Bank, as 'cut-tail' aboard a New England Schooner."
SLOW RECOVERY (1783 - 1793)
The recovery from this maritime depression was naturally slow. A sound government, stable currency, public credit, and regulation of trade were necessary for complete reaction. Adding to the discouraging domestic situation, Great Britain in 1783 closed the West India trade to American vessels, and thus deprived Massachusetts of her most profitable foreign market for the products of both the cod fisheries and the whale fisheries. Moreover British restrictions on American commerce tended to encourage the rival fisheries of Nova Scotia and elsewhere. Even after a period of years, when four-fifths of the Grand Banks fleet was again on the seas, the profits were so small that many hardy fishermen were en- ticed to Halifax and other British ports by the liberal offers of British masters.
The whale fisheries recovered even more slowly than the cod fisheries. During the Revolution many whalers, slow and clumsy, converted into privateersmen, were captured; and many others rotted at the wharves. After the war the English
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COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
market was either absolutely closed, or, by the duty of £3 10s. a ton on whale oil, effectively barred to the products of the whale industry. Although the General Court offered a bounty to the whale fisheries, it was not sufficient to remedy the situa- tion. As a consequence, against the three hundred whaling vessels that sailed into the ports of Massachusetts in 1774, scarcely one hundred set out in 1789. Before the Revolution, Nantucket was the foremost whaling center in America, out- stripping Falmouth, Barnstable, and Gloucester, and sending out each year one hundred and fifty ships. At the close of the war its industry was dead, and it was only beginning to ex- perience a revival by 1789
COMPETITION (1789 - 1807)
Shipbuilding reflected the common depression. Before the Revolution approximately one hundred and twenty-five ships were launched each year from the yards of Massachusetts. After 1783, and until long after 1789, not more than forty- five ships were launched annually. Massachusetts saw her harbors filled with foreign flags rather than American. There were other special disadvantages. Most of the marine insur- ance was written in England, and higher rates were charged for ships of American construction than for those of English build. Port charges were higher on American vessels at Brit- ish ports than on British ships at American ports. For a ship of one hundred and sixty tons the difference amounted to £9 6s. 2d. In 1789 Congress sought to counterbalance this dis- crimination by placing a heavier tonnage tax on foreign than on American ships; and by allowing a 10 per cent rebate on the duties on goods brought in by the latter class.
The general maritime situation of the United States in 1789 is strikingly illustrated by the fact that England had at that time a fleet of 94,110 tons engaged in the American carry- ing trade; while the entire fleet of the United States engaged in foreign commerce amounted to only 123,893 tons. What- ever may be said about the outlook in 1789, Massachusetts had much of which she could boast in the way of progress since 1783. If her cod fisheries were still unprofitable, she at least had recovered a large proportion of her former ton- nage. Yankee ingenuity was equal to almost any occasion;
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REVIVAL OF THE COD FISHERIES
and in spite of the restrictions placed on American bottoms engaged in the British West Indian trade, a surprising amount of tonnage had been restored by 1789. As Samuel Morison phrases it: "a Massachusetts vessel putting into a British port in distress was likely to obtain an official permit to land its cargo and relieve the starving population." France gradually opened her insular possessions, and Spain opened certain of her ports to American shipping. Small craft were carrying lumber, provisions, horses, cattle, mules, sheep, geese and tur- keys to the West Indies, and returning with rum, molasses, sugar, wine, pimento, pepper, coffee, indigo, and salt. In the shops of Boston, with their brilliantly painted signs, one could purchase crimson velvets from Geneva, linens from Ireland, Prussian bonnets, and countless wares from all over the world.
REVIVAL OF THE COD FISHERIES (1789 - 1807)
The Massachusetts cod fishery was far from flourishing in 1789. Under the tariff act of that year, a duty was laid on molasses, rum, hooks, line, lead, cordage, duck, hemp, twine, and other articles used by fishermen. The industry was so unprofitable that in 1790 thirty-three vessels from Marblehead alone were withdrawn from that service. The distressing state of the fisheries was brought to the attention of Congress, with the result that on July 4, 1789, the first measure of relief was granted. The act allowed a bounty of five cents on every quintal of dried fish, and a like amount on every barrel of pickled fish, produced by American fisheries and exported to a foreign country. In August, 1790, the bounty was doubled.
Since these measures did not materially alter the continued depression, the General Court petitioned Congress for further assistance. The petition was referred to the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who placed before Congress an able report citing the conditions which were disadvantageous to fishermen under the tariff of 1789. Under the guiding hand of Senator George Cabot, Congress enacted a measure "for the immediate encouragement" of the fisheries. According to the act the bounty on the exportation of dried fish was abolished ; in its place a specific allowance was made of from one dollar to two and a half dollars per ton to be paid annually to vessels engaged in the cod fishery. In addition a rebate was
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COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
allowed on the duty of imported salt used by cod fishermen. The rate of allowance was determined by the amount used; but in any event the maximum was $170 annually for each vessel. In 1797 the maximum allowance was increased to $272.
After 1790 the cod fishing industry experienced a revival, but it is probable that the artificial encouragement extended by the Federal government was of less importance than the general growth and development of the United States. The increased industrial and commercial activity of the Atlantic seaboard, and the increase in population, occasioned a greater demand for all products of the fishing industry. At any rate, from 1789 to 1793 the total fishing tonnage of Massachusetts increased from 19,185 to 50,163 tons. It experienced a de- cline in 1794 and 1795, revived again after 1796, and by 1807, when the shadow of the Embargo fell over the land, had attained a tonnage of 69,306 tons. For ten years preceding 1808 the average yearly export of dried fish was 438,453 quin- tals, and the average yearly export of pickled fish for approxi- mately the same period was 61,538 barrels.
EXPANSION OF MASSACHUSETTS PORTS (1783 - 1808)
The expansion of the fisheries during the first seven or eight years of the nineteenth century may be traced in the growth of the coast settlements of Massachusetts. In 1798 the town of Eastport was incorporated and became one of the most important of a chain of fishing settlements stretching from Piscataqua to the Saint Croix. The fishery at the Piscat- aqua and nearby ports in 1791 sent out a fleet of twenty-seven schooners and twenty boats aggregating 630 tons.
The story of Marblehead offers an example of what has been called the "renaissance of the fisheries." The large foreign commerce that Marblehead had enjoyed before the Revolution was almost absolutely discontinued by 1783. After that time her population turned to the fisheries and made remarkable progress. So great was their development that Marblehead became the foremost cod-fishing port in the United States, and her schooners were the best of the New England fishing fleet. Later, when the carrying trade became profit- able, she sent her larger ships to Lisbon, Havana or St. Peters-
Original by Smibert in Massachusetts Historical Society From negative owned by Mr. Frank W. Bayley PETER FANEUIL
EXPANSION OF MASSACHUSETTS PORTS 531
burg; and by 1808 Marblehead was one of the important ports of the Atlantic seaboard.
During the period under survey Massachusetts fishermen sought a wider range for their industry. The Labrador area was the first to experience this expansion. Newburyport, for example, sent her first ship to the Labrador area in 1794, but by 1809 the fleet hailing from that port alone numbered forty- five vessels. By 1808 probably three fourths of the dried fish exported from Massachusetts were taken from that area. Merchants began to send larger ships to the Labrador coast to replace the smaller ones, while British merchants surveyed the activities of the enterprising Yankee fishermen with jeal- ous rage. About 1808, a British observer counted nine hun- dred American ships that passed the straits of Canso; and a Boston observer declared that 1,232 vessels were employed annually in the Bank, Labrador, and Bay fisheries.
Gloucester did not recover her fishing industry as rapidly as her neighboring ports. According to one estimate she sent out only fifty ships in 1789, and by 1804 her fisheries had so declined that only eight vessels of more than thirty tons left for the fishing grounds. She maintained, however, a large number of smaller craft, especially the "Chebacco boat," short but seaworthy, in which Gloucester men took cod, haddock or pollock from the banks along the Maine coast. By 1804, Gloucester owned two hundred Chebacco boats. If, however, the fisheries of Gloucester declined, her trade increased. En- terprising merchants secured a hegemony of trade with Su- rinam; and it was said that her ships were better known in Dutch Guiana than in American ports.
At the close of the Revolution the Plymouth fisheries were of small importance, but by 1789 they expanded to include cod, mackerel and herring. By 1802 Provincetown alone em- ployed thirty-three vessels in the cod fishery. Her ships sent to Labrador and Newfoundland brought back annually $100,- 000 worth of fish. The population of Cape Cod increased from 17,000 in 1790 to 22,000 in 1810. Besides engaging in the cod fishing, the enterprising citizens of Plymouth, Prov- incetown, Barnstable and Woods Hole sent out whaling fleets and engaged in other maritime enterprises.
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COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
THE WHALE FISHERY (1789 - 1812)
The whale-fishing industry made some progress in this pe- riod, but reached its zenith after 1820. In 1789 only 122 vessels were engaged in whale fishing from the ports of Massachus- etts. Of these Dartmouth and New Bedford numbered fifty and Nantucket thirty-six. In 1783 increase in the number of lighthouses that used sperm oil widened the market, and in the following year France opened her markets to American whale products. These things, together with the general increase of industry and commerce, enabled the whaling industry to experience a revival.
As was the case with the cod fisheries, new areas of en- terprise were sought. In 1788 Nantucket sent the Ranger, the first American whaler to enter the Pacific. This ship re- turned in 1789 with 1,000 barrels of whale oil. Two years later the Beaver, 240 tons burden, was fitted out for the Pacif- ic, with a crew of seventeen men, forty barrels of salt provi- sions, three and a half tons of bread, thirty bushels of peas, 1,000 pounds of rice, forty gallons of molasses and twenty- four barrels of flour. She returned two years later with 1,200 barrels of whale products. Whales were also found in large quantities on the coast of Chile; and by the turn of the century ships from New Bedford and Nantucket were profitably en- gaged either on the Pacific or in the South Seas. The extension of the whaling industry to distant waters occasioned the con- struction of larger ships, and that eventually proved the doom of Nantucket as the chief whaling port in America; for large ships had difficulty in crossing the bar at her harbor's en- trance. For a time, however, Nantucket reigned supreme. It was said that the "entire population followed the sea," and that even the "cows came down to the harbor's edge to browse, and take in the scene of maritime activity."
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