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U. S. Grant
ILLINOIS
HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL
COMPRISING THE ESSENTIAL FACTS OF ITS PLANTING AND GROWTH AS A
PROVINCE, COUNTY, TERRITORY, AND STATE.
DERIVED FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES, INCLUDING ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS AND PAPERS. TOGETHER WITH CAREFULLY PREPARED STATISTICAL TABLES RELATING TO POPULATION, FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION, INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS, INTERNAL GROWTH, POLITICAL AND MILITARY EVENTS; AND COMPLETE INDEX.
BY JOHN MOSES,
EX-COUNTY JUDGE OF SCOTT COUNTY; PRIVATE SECRETARY OF GOV. YATES; MEMBER OF THE TWENTY-NINTH GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF ILLINOIS; SECRETARY OF THE BOARD OF RAILROAD AND WAREHOUSE COMMISSIONERS, 1880-3; SECRETARY AND LIBRARIAN OF THE CHICAGO HISTORICAL SOCIETY; ETC., ETC.
ILLUSTRATED.
VOL. II.
CHICAGO: FERGUS PRINTING COMPANY. 1892. IN
-14631-
ASTOR
MAR 2 1893 NEW
YORK
COPYRIGHTED, 1892.
Mocked 122y 1012
ILLINOIS: HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. VOL. II.
CONTENTS VOL. II.
List of Illustrations, - - ix
PERIOD SIXTH. - UNDER THE SECOND CONSTITUTION, 1848-1870.
CHAPTER XXXII.
The Constitutional Convention of 1847, and its Work- Elections of 1848-Second Administration of Governor French - Sixteenth General Assembly- Election of Gen. Shields to the U .- S. Senate-Laws-Seventeenth General Assembly-Free-Banking Law-First Home- stead-Exemption Law-Illinois-Central Railroad, 553
CHAPTER XXXIII.
Administration of Gov. Matteson-Eighteenth General Assembly-Re-election of Senator Douglas-Laws- State and National Politics-New Parties-Nineteenth General Assembly- Election of Senator Trumbull- Prohibitory Liquor-Law-The Common-School Law,
CHAPTER XXXIV. 582
Formation of New Parties-The Bloomington Convention -Elections of 1856-Administration of Gov. Bissell- Twentieth General Assembly-Laws-The Campaign of 1858- Twenty - first General Assembly - Douglas again elected to the Senate-Laws - The Matteson Embezzlement-Death of Gov. Bissell-Succession of Lieut .- Gov. John Wood,
- 596
CHAPTER XXXV.
Review-Conventions and Elections of 1860-Administra- tion of Gov. Yates-The Political Situation-Twenty- second General Assembly-Senator Trumbull's Second Election - War - Clouds - Lincoln's Inauguration - Attack on Fort Sumter - The War of the Rebellion begun-Enlistments under Different Calls-Changed Conditions of Public Affairs, 629
iii
iv
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Results of the First Year of the War-The Constitutional Convention of 1862-Further Calls for Troops-Yates' Masterly Appeal-Escape from the Draft-The Con- ference of Governors at Altoona - Emancipation - Elections of 1862-Twenty-third General Assembly- Election of U .- S. Senator-Laws-Special Session- The Assembly Prorogued. - - - 655
CHAPTER XXXVII.
State of Parties-The Northwestern Conspiracy-Threat- ened Attacks upon Camp Douglas and Chicago- The Political Campaigns of 1864-Party Platforms- Results-Progress of the War-Internal Progress- State-Debt, - - 686
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Administration of Gov. Oglesby, 1865-9-Twenty fourth- General Assembly-Yates Elected to United-States Senate-The Thirteenth Amendment-Laws-Close of the War-Assassination of President Lincoln, 714
CHAPTER XXXIX.
The Civil War-Number of Troops Engaged - Battles -Losses-Illinois in the War-Quotas-Troops Fur- nished by Each County-Bounties Paid-Regimental Losses at Fort Donelson - Shiloh -Stone River - Chickamauga - Missionary Ridge-Other Battles - Percentage of Losses-Officers from Illinois-Work of the "Stay-at- Homes"- Sanitary and Christian Commissions-Union League-Songs of the War, 725
CHAPTER XL.
Gov. Oglesby's Administration -[Continued] - Changed Aspect of Politics-Reconstruction-Conventions and Elections of 1866-Twenty- fifth General Assembly- Re-election of United-States Senator Trumbull-Laws -New State-House-Political Conventions, Nomina- tions, and Elections of 1868-State Debt, Receipts, and Expenditures, 762 -
V
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XLI.
Governor Palmer's Administration (1869-1873) -Twenty- sixth General Assembly-Ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment-Special Legislation-Laws and Vetoes- Lake-Front Law-Constitution of 1870, 774
PERIOD SEVENTH .- UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1870. CHAPTER XLII.
Gov. Palmer's Administration [Continued] - State Conven- tions, Nominations, and Elections of 1870- Twenty- seventh General Assembly-Election of Gen. Logan to the Senate- Laws- Recess and Reassembling of the Legislature-Chicago Fire-Controversy between Governor Palmer and Mayor Mason-The Liberal- Republican Party - Presidential Nominations and Elections of 1872, - - 795
CHAPTER XLIII.
Administration of Gov. Beveridge-Twenty-eighth General Assembly-Election of Oglesby to the Senate-Laws -Parties and Platforms in 1874-Twenty-ninth Gen- eral Assembly - Haines Speaker- Laws - The Cen- tennial Year - Conventions, Platforms, and Elections of 1876, 818
CHAPTER XLIV.
Administration of Gov. Cullom-Thirtieth General Assem- bly - Election of David Davis to the United - States Senate - Laws - Labor Strikes - Politics in 1878 - Elections-Thirty-first General Assembly, - 84I
CHAPTER XLV.
Progress-Gov. Cullom's Second Administration-Thirty- second General Assembly-Laws-Politics in 1882- Thirty - third General Assembly-Election of Cullom to the Senate, 868
CHAPTER XLVI.
Administration of Gov. John M. Hamilton - Temperance Legislation - Laws - Labor Problems - Riots in St. Clair and Madison Counties-Conventions, Platforms, and Elections of 1884, 882
vi
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
CHAPTER XLVII.
Second Administration of Oglesby-Thirty-fourth General Assembly-The Logan-Morrison Contest for United- States Senate-Special Election in the Thirty-fourth District-Laws-Strikes-Conventions and Elections of 1886-Thirty-fifth General Assembly-Election of Farwell to the Senate, vice Logan deceased-Laws- Conventions and Elections of 1888, - - 900
CHAPTER XLVIII.
Administration of Gov. Fifer-The Thirty-sixth General Assembly-Re-election of Cullom to the Senate-Laws -The Drainage Commission-Conventions of 1890- The World's Columbian Exposition-Special Session of the Legislature- Laws-Growth - The Press- Literature,
- 924
CHAPTER XLIX.
The Executive, Legislative, and Judicial Departments - Politics and Politicians-Party Management-Election Statistics, - 954 -
CHAPTER L.
Education-The Common Schools-Colleges, - 988
CHAPTER LI.
State Institutions-Penal, Reformatory, Benevolent, 1013
CHAPTER LII.
Railroads in the United States-Illinois-Transportation Companies-The Railroad-and- Warehouse Commis- sion, - - I04I
CHAPTER LIII.
The Religious Denominations in Illinois-Their Classi- fication, Growth, and Strength-Secret Benevolent Societies, Masons, Odd-Fellows-Knights Templars -Knights of Pythias, 1068
vii
CONTENTS.
Appendix-Constitution of 1848, - 1083
Constitution of 1870, II05
Amendments to the Constitution of 1870, - - II34 Genesis and Growth of Counties, - II37 State Officers under Constitutions of 1848 and 1870, 1140 Judiciary, - II42 Judges of the Supreme Court, - II46 - Judges of the Circuit Court, - II47
Judges of Cook-County Circuit Court,
-
1152
Judges of Superior Court of Cook County, 1152 Judges of Appellate Courts, II53 Clerks of the Supreme Court, II53 Reporters of the Supreme Court, II54 Legislative Apportionments from 1818 to 1882, II55 Members of the General Assembly, Ist to 37th, 1163 Party Strength in Illinois Legislatures since 1855, 1189
Speakers of the House of Representatives, - 1190 State Boards of Equalization, I19I
Congressional Apportionment of Representatives from Illinois, I195
United-States Senators, -
I198
Representatives to Congress, - I199
Presidential Electors, - I204 -
Delegates to Republican National Convention, '60, 1205 Delegates to Democratic National Convention, '60, 1205 Receipts and Expenditures of the State, 1848-90, 1206 Value of Real and Personal Property, - I207 - Popular Vote of the State by Counties, 1852-90, 1208 Popular Vote of the State since 1824, I212
Commanders during the War of the Rebellion of Illinois Regiments and Batteries, aggregate strength, and strength at muster out, and date of final muster out-Infantry, I213
Cavalry, - I225
- Artillery, I227
viii
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
Roll of Illinois Major - Generals, Brevet Major- Generals, Brigadier-Generals, and Brevet Brig- adier-Generals, - - 123I -
Losses of Illinois Regiments and Batteries :
Infantry,
-
1235
Cavalry, -
1238
Artillery, 1239
State Banks,
- I24I
State Property,
I242
County Officers for 1891,
- I243
Index,
,
I247
ILLUSTRATIONS: VOL. II.
Allen, James C.
650
Drummond, Thomas
-
972
Dubois, Jesse K.
626
Allen, William J.
972
-
Anthony, Elliott
788
Edsall, James K. .
-
824
Arnold, Isaac N. . 948
Edwards, Cyrus
998
Bateman, Newton,
626
Edwards, Ninian W.
-
582
Edwards, Richard
892
Bates, Erastus N.
780
-
Farwell, Charles B.
916
Beveridge, John L.
802
Field, Eugene -
952
Bissell, William H. .
588
Fifer, Joseph W. .
-
924
Foster, John W.
948
Fuller, Allen C. .
650
Bogue, George M.
900
Fuller, Melville W. .
972
Funk, Isaac
-
562
-
Browning, Orville H.
644
Bushnell, Washington .
-
780
Cable, Ransom R. .
1042
Campbell, Thomas H. .
582
Campbell, Thompson
562
Campbell, William J. -
892
Cannon, Joseph G. .
986
Harrison, Carter H.
986
Hatch, Ozias M.
626
Catherwood, Mary H.
952
Caton, John Dean
968
Carr, Clark E.
980
Colbert, Elias
-
948
Collins, Loren C., jr.
900
Conkling, James C. .
762
Cook, Burton C. .
644
Crafts, Clayton E.
940
Cullom, Shelby M.
840
Davis, David
852
Davis, George R. . 936
Dement, Henry D.
878
Dement, John
788
-
Dougherty, John
780
Hay, Milton _
788
Haynie, Isham N.
762
Henderson, Thomas J. -
-
986
Hoffman, Francis A.
644
Hughitt, Marvin
1042
Hunt, George 844
Hurlbut, Stephen A.
980
Ingersoll, Robert G.
650
James, William A.
878
Judd, Norman B. .
644
Kirkland, Joseph
948
Koerner, Gustavus
-
582
Lincoln, Robert T.
980
ix
Gross, Jacob
892
Haines, Elisha M.
824
Hamilton, John M.
882
Harlow, George H.
824
Bross, William
762
Grant, Ulysses S.
Frontispiece
Gresham, Walter Q. .
-
972
Blackstone, Timothy B.
1042
Blodgett, Henry W.
972
Benjamin, Reuben M.
788
X
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
Lippincott, Charles E. .
-
780
Rinaker, John I. .
900
Lockwood, Samuel D. 968
Root, George F.
952
Logan, John A.
793
Ripley, Edward P.
-
1042
Rummel, Edward
780
Scott, John M.
968
McCartney, James
878
McClernand, John A.
650
Shaw, James
844
McDougall, James A.
562
Shepard, Daniel
932
Shuman, Andrew
844
McMullen, James C.
1042
Slade, James P. .
844
Matteson, Joel A.
582
Smith, George W.
824
Matthews, Asa C.
932
Smith, John C.
900
Springer, William M.
986
Miller, James
-
626
Miner, Orlin H.
762
Moore, John
582
Morrison, William R.
986
Moses, John 1046
Moulton, Samuel W. .
762
Needles, Thomas B.
844
Trumbull, Lyman
596
Turner, Jonathan B. .
998
Upton, George P. .
-
952
Palmer, John M. .
774
Vance, Joseph W.
-
892
Pearson, Isaac N.
932
Phillips, Jesse J. .
650
Poole, William F.
952
Wentworth, John -
562
Raab, Henry
878
Williams, John -
644
Rauch, John H.
998
Wilson, Edward M.
940
Wines, Frederick H.
940
626
Reynolds, John P.
940
Richardson, William A.
562
Wood, John -
-
Wright, John Stephen
998
Yates, Richard
636
Ridgway, Thomas S.
824
Tree, Lambert -
980
Oberly, John H. .
900
Oglesby, Richard J. .
714
Swigert, Charles P.
878
Tanner, John R.
932
Thomas, Horace H.
892
Thornton, William F.
560
Treat, Samuel H.
968
Washburne, Elihu Benj.
980
Wells, William Harvey
998
Ray, Lyman B. .
932
Logan, Stephen T.
968
Mason, Edward G.
948
Medill, Joseph
783
ILLINOIS, HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL,
VOL. II.
T
PERIOD VI .- UNDER THE SECOND CONSTITU- TION, 1848-1870.
CHAPTER XXXII
The Constitutional Convention of 1847, and its Work- Elections of 1848-Second Administration of Governor French - Sixteenth General Assembly - Election of Gen. Shields to the U .- S. Senate-Laws-Seventeenth General Assembly-Free-Banking Law-First Home- stead - Exemption Law - Illinois - Central Railroad.
T
LLINOIS, although in order of time the third State admitted
into the Union from the Northwest Territory, was the first to revise and amend its organic law. Only six years had elapsed when it was proposed to call a constitutional convention, but the project then, 1824, was voted down in consequence of the slavery issue, as has been already explained. Not only was the first constitution found to be defective in many essential feat- ures when considered as an instrument designed for the govern- ment of a growing and transitional commonwealth, but it had also come to be regarded with disfavor by the politicians of both parties when viewed from a partisan standpoint. Democrats and whigs were alike anxious for its revision-the former that they might get rid of the obnoxious supreme-court judges; the latter that they might restrict the right of suffrage to citizens and make all county officers elective by the people.
After the defeat of the call in 1824, although the advocates of revision did not cease their efforts, they failed to secure the passage of a joint-resolution by the legislature submitting the question to the popular vote until the session of 1840-I, and it was again defeated at the election of 1842 by the narrow major- ity of 1039.
36
553
554
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
The legislature of 1844-5, submitted another call to be voted upon in 1846, at which time the proposition carried by a vote of 58,339 to 23,013.
Delegates were elected on the third Monday in April (19th), and the convention, composed of 162 members, assembled at Springfield, June 7, 1847. It was an unwieldy body in point of numbers, being larger than any of its successors, yet it con- tained its full proportion of the best talent which the State could furnish. Many of its members had already attained merited distinction in the service of the State. Among these may be mentioned the following: Archibald Williams, an able lawyer, who had been a valuable member of the legislature and was subsequently appointed a judge of the United-States dis- trict court in Kansas; Francis C. Sherman, who had also served as a law-maker and who afterward became a leading politician in and mayor of Chicago; Zadoc Casey, who had been six times chosen to congress; Walter B. Scates, who had formerly occu- pied a seat upon the bench of the supreme court of the State; Col. John Dement, an old ranger and for many years a member of the legislature and more than once appointed state treasurer; Cyrus Edwards, a distinguished member of the state senate and a leading whig from Madison County.
Morgan County sent an able delegation composed of Samuel D. Lockwood,* William Thomas,+ Newton Cloud, and James Dunlap.
Sangamon County also sent a strong delegation, at the head of which was that eminent jurist, Stephen Trigg Logan. The others were Ninian W. Edwards-son of Gov. Ninian Edwards -an efficient legislator and public officer; James H. Matheny, then an able young lawyer and at present the popular judge of
* Judge Lockwood came to the State from New York with Wm. H. Brown in 1818, and for thirty years had occupied a prominent and influential position, having been on the supreme bench since 1824; and no man stood higher in respect of purity of character, sound judgment, and eminent ability. He retired to private life in 1849, and died at Batavia, Illinois, April 13, 1874.
+ William Thomas came to Jacksonville, Illinois, from Bowling Green, Kentucky, in 1826. His abilities were soon recognized by the people, who frequently returned him to the general assembly, where he proved an intelligent, safe, and reliable legis- lator. He still (August, 1889,) survives at the age of 86 years, an upright and hon- ored citizen, who has accomplished much in his day and generation for the good of the State.
555
CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1847.
his county to which position he has been four times elected; and John Dawson previously a member of four general assem- blies.
Among other distinguished members may be mentioned: Thomas A. Marshall, Richard B. Servant, and John D. White- side. Of those who sat in that convention, the following mem- bers were afterward elected to congress; James W. Singleton, Jesse O. Norton, Stephen A. Hurlbut, James Knox, Abner C. Harding, Anthony Thornton, and Willis Allen -also to the bench, Thompson Campbell; and the following as circuit judges: Henry M. Wead, David M. Woodson, David Davis-later pro- moted to the bench of the U .- S. supreme court and still later chosen U .- S. senator, Wm. A. Minshall, Alexander M. Jenkins, Onslow Peters, and Chas. H. Constable. John M. Palmer of Macoupin County, was subsequently elected governor, and David L. Gregg, of Cook County, secretary of state. Among the dele- gates who afterward became prominent in state politics as mem- bers of the legislature were Win. R. Archer and Wm. A. Grim- shaw of Pike County, George W. Armstrong of LaSalle, Nathan M. Knapp of Scott, Linus E. Worcester of Greene, Samuel Snowden Hayes of White, Selden M. Church of Winnebago, and Henry E. Dummer of Cass County.
Although party lines were not strictly drawn in the selection of delegates, the democrats were careful to maintain in the convention the supremacy which they held in the State, elect- ing 92 out of the 162 members. Newton Cloud was chosen presi- dent of the convention, Henry W. Moore, secretary, and John A. Wilson, sergeant-at-arms. It soon became apparent that the members intended to proceed deliberately and to make a thor- ough revision of the old constitution. The declaration of funda- mental principles in the Bill of Rights was, however, copied almost verbatim from the old instrument -the only changes therein being those providing that the military shall be in strict subordination to the civil power, that "no soldier in time of peace shall be quartered in any house without consent of the owner, nor in time of war, except in manner prescribed by law;" and the addition of a section prohibiting dueling.
The tendency of popular thought and sentiment in this coun- try has always been to curtail the powers of the legislative
556
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
branch of the government, while enlarging those of the people. It is therefore not surprising that the most exciting and inter- esting discussions in the convention were those relative to the definition of governmental powers and the regulation of the elective franchise, these being, as it must be remembered, the prevailing issues between the two dominant parties.
The debates in many instances were somewhat heated and the speakers indulged in offensive personalities, notably in the discussion between Messrs. Thompson Campbell and O. C. Pratt of Jo Daviess County, which resulted in a mutual agree- ment between these gentlemen to submit the issue to the arbit- rament of the sword or pistol on the field of honor near St. Louis. The intervention of the police prevented any effusion of blood, but only a miraculous interposition could have checked the effervesence of mutual spleen which found an outlet in a wordy but harmless correspondence.
In providing for the election by the people, of the judges of the supreme court, as well as of all the state officers, the con- vention went much farther than had been anticipated. This innovation upon the ancient and stereotyped methods of judi- cial appointments by the governor or legislatures of the respec- tive states, was initiated by the State of Georgia in an amend- ment to her constitution in 1812, providing that the justices of the inferior courts should be elected for a term of four years by the people, the selection of the judges of the supreme court being still confided to the general assembly. The first consti- tution of Indiana, 1816, provided that the judges of the supreme court should be appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate; the presidents of the circuit-courts to be chosen by the legislature, and the two associate circuit-judges elected by the people of the several counties. Georgia, in her second con- stitution adopted in 1832, was also the first state to take from the governor or general assembly the power of appointing su- preme and circuit-court judges and give it to the people. The next state to adopt the new system was New York, followed by the then, new State of Iowa in 1846. Whether the change has been a wise one admits of arguments on both sides, and may be still considered a moot question. It has been followed, since 1848, in the revisions of twenty-seven states. Virginia,
557
THE CONSTITUTION OF 1848.
however, in her constitution of 1864, returned to the method of election by the legislature, as did Mississippi in 1868. The judges are still elected by the legislature in the states of Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and Georgia-the latter hav- ing returned to the old system. In eight states the judges are appointed by the governor, subject to confirmation by the coun- cil or senate, as follows: Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp- shire, Connecticut, Florida, Louisiana - and supreme court judges only, in Mississippi and New Jersey.
Another tendency in those states which have adopted the popular elective system is, to extend the term of service of the judges, especially those of the court of last resort, which has been increased in New York from eight to fourteen years, in Pennsylvania from fifteen to twenty-one years, in Missouri from six to ten years, in California from ten to twelve, and in Maryland from ten to fifteen years.
The powers of the general assembly were further curtailed in the following particulars: that divorces should be granted only for such causes as might be specified by general law, and not by the legislature directly; that no extra compensation should be granted to any public officer, agent, servant, or contractor, after the service had been rendered or the contract entered into; that no lotteries should be authorized for any purpose; that the charter of the state bank, or any other bank heretofore exist- ing in the State should not be revived or extended. Moreover, remembering the financial embarassments into which the body politic had been plunged by adopting a hastily-conceived sys- tem of internal improvements-the State was prohibited from contracting any indebtedness exceeding fifty thousand dollars and even that amount only "to meet casual deficits or failures in revenue." Neither was the credit of the State "in any man- ner to be given to, nor in aid of, any individual association or corporation."
The features of an executive term of four years and the ineligibility of the governor to an immediate reelection were preserved. The cumbrous appendage of the first constitution, called the Council of Revision, adopted from the State of New York, was abolished, and in lieu thereof the governor was vested with a qualified veto power.
558
ILLINOIS-HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL.
The advocates of a restricted right of suffrage, limiting its exercise to white male citizens, as contradistinguished from inhabitants, and thus disfranchising unnaturalized foreigners who enjoyed that privilege under the constitution of 1818, succeeded in engrafting upon the new instrument their favorite article. The laws of the different states have not been at all uniform on this subject-new commonwealths have generally extended the priv- ilege to all inhabitants. Actual citizenship is required in the following states: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Ver- mont, Virginia, and West Virginia. In all the others citizen- ship or a declaration of intention to become a citizen is neces- sary. Kentucky is the only state requiring a residence of two years; twenty - six require one year; eight, six months; one, four months; and two, Michigan and Maine, three months.
The cry of economy and retrenchment in administering the state government, which had been heard for so many years, led the convention into the commission of its gravest error. This was in attempting practically to limit the sessions of the general assembly arbitrarily to forty-two days; the provision being that two dollars per day for the first forty-two days' attendance, and one dollar per day for each day's attendance thereafter, should be allowed to the members as a compensation for their services, "and no more." The time specified for a general session was entirely too short, and the amount allowed members was alto- gether too little. In fact, so distrustful was the convention of the legislature that the former body determined to fix all salaries of state-officers and judges in the constitution, and all of them at a parsimoniously low figure. Thus the governor was given $1500; the supreme-court judges, $1200; circuit-judges, $1000; state auditor, $1000; treasurer and secretary of state, $800 each. These would have been absurdly low rates to fix even by statute, which might have been amended in two years; but to place them in the fundamental law, to remain irrevocably fixed, was certainly either to invite its evasion or to stimulate a desire for an early change. As will be seen hereafter, it was a very ill-considered and costly attempt at economy and reform.
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