USA > Pennsylvania > A geography of Pennsylvania : containing an account of the history, geographical features, soil, climate, geology, botany, zoology, population, education, government, finances, productions, trade, railroads, canals &c. of the state : with a separate description of each county, and questions for the convenience of teachers : to which is appended, a travellers' guide, or table of distances on the principal rail road, canal and stage routes in the state > Part 6
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These two formations range eastward from the Susquehanna above the Blue mountain, passing southward of the Schuylkill and Lehigh coal regions, and along the southern side of Pocono mountain in Monroe county ; then spreading out broadly over most of Pike and Wayne counties, sweep around the eastern terminations of the anthracite coal fields in broad flattened synclinal axes. Nearly the whole of Susquehanna county, a large portion of Luzerne and Bradford, with most of the region which lies north and west of the bituminous coal fields, in the northern counties of the state, belong to this series of rocks.
The same formations in like manner spread around the western ends of the anthracite basins, and are found in the broad undulating valleys outside of the high mountain ridges which stretch around
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GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
the coal fields. The olive slate and red shale rocks appear in Armstrong's valley in Dauphin county, around Halifax,-in the valley of Shamokin creek southeast and east of Sunbury, thence stretching across the Shamokin hills to the North branch, they extend through Roaring creek valley by Catawissa, and into Luzerne county southeast of the Wyoming coal valley. Thence spreading out and folding round the Lackawanna valley, they return on the northwest through the northern townships of Luzerne and Columbia, and extend over the broad hilly region along the southern base of the Allegheny mountain. The red and gray sandstones of the upper portion of this series, form most of the southeastern face of the Allegheny throughout its course across the state ; while the olive slates of the lower group are seen in the range of smaller hills which stretch along near the base of that mighty chain.
The rocks belonging to these formations are also seen on the Juniata river, at and below Huntingdon, whence they extend southward, branching out and passing on both sides of the Trough Creek valley and the Broad Top coal field. The eastern division passes along east of Sideling hill, a part of it folding back north- ward again to the Juniata in Aughwick valley, while the main portion spreads broadly out over most of the southeastern part of Bedford county. The western division is seen along Allegripus ridge, west of Terrace mountain, and spreading out south of Broad Top, occupies most of the region between Ray's hill and Tussey's mountain to the Maryland line. These formations are visible in many other places ; for we have not attempted to describe their range minutely,-a mere general outline being all that our limits enable us to give.
X. Over these red shales and sandstones rests a series of massive beds of coarse hard gray sandstone, sometimes containing pebbles, with occasional bands of dark greenish slates intermixed. This rock is much more compact, harder, and tougher than the sand- stone below it. The strata, too, are generally heavier, and the whole formation more united and massive in character. We are now approaching the coal bearing rocks, and accordingly some- times find in this formation bands of black carbonaceous slate, the flattened stems of plants and even thin scales of coal itself. Let no one be deluded, however, by the hope of finding productive veins of coal in this formation, for we are still several hundred feet below the true coal bearing series.
The anthracite coal basins are generally in the form of long canoe-shaped troughs, encircled by a double border of mountains, of which the rock we are now describing, forms the outer ring or barrier. It is seen in the Broad mountain, above Mauch Chunk, on the Lehigh, whence it sweeps round the eastern end of that coal basin, and runs southwestward in the Second mountain through its whole course from the Lehigh to the Susquehanna. Crossing this river below the town of Dauphin, it encircles a little cove on the west side, again recrosses and appears in Peters' mountain to its eastern termination near the head waters of Wico-
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GEOLOGY.
nisco creek. Here it again turns westward, in Berry's mountain, and once more crossing the Susquehanna below Millersburg, extends into Perry county nearly to the Juniata, where it again winds round to the northeastward, again crosses the Susquehanna just below Liverpool, and forms the ridge called Mahontongo mountain, north of Lykens' valley. This mountain terminates near the southeastern corner of Northumberland county, connecting with the Line mountain, in which this rock formation again turns westward towards the Susquehanna, which it reaches in the high knob on the east side of the river, above the mouth of Mahanoy creek. Here it does not cross the river, but again turns to the northeast, forming the long range called the Little mountain, south of the Shamokin and Roaring creek valleys, and extending to Catawissa creek. From this point it again bends to the northwest, and forms a chain of short mountain ridges and knobs extending to the western end of Catawissa mountain, southeast of the town. Hence its course is again to the northeastward along the Catawissa mountain, and its continuation the Nescopeck mountain, at the eastern termination of which this formation flattens out and prob- ably joins the Wyoming or Moosick mountain, on the southeast of the Wyoming coal basin. It ranges along this side of the coal field southwestward, crossing the North branch of the Susque- hanna some distance below Shickshinny, and extends in the Knob mountain nearly to Orangeville, in Columbia county. Here it folds sharply back, forming the Shickshinny mountain, and stretches along the high ridges on the western side of the Wyo- ming valley, crossing the North branch above the mouth of Lacka- wanna, and so on until again uniting with the Moosick mountain, north of Carbondale, it thus encircles the Wyoming and Lacka- wanna coal basin.
By tracing these multiplied windings of this formation on a good map of the State, we shall see that it encloses all the anthra- cite coal fields, sweeping along their sides and folding sharply round their pointed ends, though generally at some distance from them. The space between is occupied by a red shale, commonly forming a little valley, and belonging to the formation next to be described, as lying above the sandstone of which we are now treating. If the dip of this sandstone be observed, it will be found, throughout the long winding course which we have described, to be always descending towards the side occupied by the red shale which lies between it and the coal basins, and of course, passing beneath the red shale. An exception to this general rule may, however, be found in the Second mountain, south of the Schuyl- kill and Swatara coal regions, where the dip is inverted, the rocks having, by some great convulsion, been tilted beyond the perpen- dicular.
The same sandstone also occurs in Bedford and Huntingdon counties, encompassing the Broad Top coal basin, and may be seen in the Terrace mountain and Sideling hill, enclosing the red shale of Trough Creek valley, and passing southward in Allegripus and Harbour mountains.
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GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
This formation is found to occupy the same position in relation to the bituminous coal fields that it does to the anthracite, and we accordingly find it along the southeastern slope of the Allegheny mountain near its summit, dipping gently towards the northwest, throughout its whole course, from the Maryland line to the north branch of Susquehanna, near Tunkhannock, in the new county of Wyoming. Here it folds round the extreme northeastern point of the bituminous coal region, and passes westward through the northern counties, on the north side of the bituminous coal, having here of course a slight southern dip.
XI. Above the hard gray sandstone last described is a series of red shales and red sandstones, with some alternating layers of gray sandstone, though the red shale usually predominates throughout the formation. Some of the strata are more or less calcareous, and a few of them approach the character of a true limestone. These, near the anthracite coal regions, frequently consist of a thin band of conglomerate rock, made up of pebbles chiefly of lime- stone, having a light bluish gray or reddish colour, imbedded in a cement of reddish or greenish argillaceous shale. Some of the purest of these calcareous bands might be burned into a rough lime ; but in general they are not found sufficiently pure to be of much use in this respect. Iron ore of considerable value is found in this formation in certain parts of its range.
It has been already observed that this red shale formation is found extending around all the anthracite coal basins. It is usually seen in the deep and narrow valleys which lie between the ridges of sandstone, mentioned in the preceding article, and those of the conglomerate formation next to be described, as lying above this red shale, and forming the immediate margin of the trough or basin in which the coal is found. Accordingly, we observe it be- tween the Second and Sharp mountains, extending on the south of the coal, from the Lehigh to the Susquehanna, and there folding round the end of the Stony creek basin, it runs up the valley of Clark's creek to the head of Wiconisco, where it again turns west and passes down Williams' valley to Millersburg, on the Susque- hanna, where a portion of it is seen on the west side of the river in Perry county. From this it stretches again eastward, up Lykens' valley to the north side of the Broad mountain, passing up between the western points of the southern coal fields, and dividing them from the Shamokin and Mahanoy region. It passes thence west- ward down the valley of Mahanoy creek, near the mouth of which it again folds eastward round the point of the Mahanoy coal basin and pursues the long narrow valley south of the Little mountain to near the head of Catawissa creek, down which it passes north- ward to the southern base of the Nescopeck mountain. Its course is now northeastward through the Nescopeck valley to the Lehigh, where it folds round the eastern points of several divisions of the coal field, towards the southern range, where we first mentioned its occurrence, between the Second and Sharp mountains. We have only traced the general outline of this formation ; it may be
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GEOLOGY.
seen in other places between the various minor divisions of the great anthracite basins.
It will be found in like manner, sweeping around the long canoe- shaped coal trough of Wyoming and Lackawanna, always main- taining its position between the sandstone of the last mentioned formation and the conglomerate or coarse pebble rock which lies immediately below the coal series. The coal field of Broad Top, in Bedford and Huntingdon, is also encompassed by this same red shale group, which is seen in the valley of Trough creek, north of Broad Top, and passing both on the east and west of that moun- tain, again unites in Wells' valley on the south of it.
This formation which has been described as encircling the mountain ridges which enclose the anthracite coal measures is also found in the same position with respect to the bituminous coal fields. But while in the anthracite regions it has a thickness of perhaps not less than two thousand feet, we find it much dimin- ished where it occurs below the bituminous coal, and observation would seem to prove that it decreases in thickness as we trace it northwestward. In the southeastern portion of the bituminous coal country, we find it maintaining a massive character in the Little Allegheny, the Savage, the Great Allegheny and the Negro mountains, also in Laurel Hill and in Chesnut ridge, in most of which ranges it contains thick bands of limestone, or highly calca- reous rock ; yet when we observe it as far north as Clinton and Lycoming counties, it thins away to extremely diminished size. In the neighbourhood of Farrandsville, on the west branch of the Susquehanna, in Clinton county, the total thickness of this forma- tion is but about twenty-four feet ; and still farther northwest it seems in many places entirely to thin out and disappear.
XII. The next formation above the red shale, and immediately beneath the coal series, is a group of massive strata of coarse silicious conglomerates, alternating with white or light coloured sandstones, and containing some thin beds of dark carbonaceous shale. Around the anthracite basins, the conglomerate is the pre- vailing character of the rock, which there consists chiefly of cemented pebbles, of white quartz, from the size of a pea to that of an orange. But in many parts of the range of this formation, beneath the bituminous coal region, it shows less of the conglome- rate character, being in some places almost wholly a coarse white sandstone.
This rock will be found on the ridges which form the immediate border of all the anthracite coal basins; also around the coal of Broad Top, and of the bituminous region west of the Allegheny. Our limits will not permit us to trace it in detail ; but as we have described the general range of the red shale below it, the locality of this rock may easily be found in connection with it.
As this conglomerate formation composes the true floor of the coal measures, all search for productive beds of that fuel beneath it must be fruitless ; and this rock will form a sure guide to the judicious explorer, who will attend to its dip and direction and always search for coal above it. This observation applies, of
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GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
course, only to the main heavy conglomerate formation ; as there are in the coal series, and between the coal seams, some thin bands of a conglomerate character, though very different from the coarser and thicker rocks of the main formation below the coal.
XIII. It now remains for us to describe, in a brief and general manner, that extensive and varied system of rock strata which contains the coal of Pennsylvania. The lowest beds of coal are generally found near the underlying conglomerate rock, or some- times even in it; but as we ascend in the series we find the coal seams separated by beds of greater or less thickness of soft argilla- ceous bluish gray, or light gray sandstone, and of black, dark coloured, or grayish slates and shales. These shales sometimes contain bands and kidney-shaped masses of valuable iron ore ; but it seems to prevail as a general rule, that this ore in the anthracite basins is not equal either in quality or abundance to that of the bituminous region west of the Allegheny mountain. Valuable strata of limestone also are found between the beds of bituminous coal, which appear to be nearly, if not totally, absent in the same position in the anthracite series.
In considering the extent included within the general boundaries of the coal regions of this State, we must by no means suppose that the coal spreads continuously over their whole area. When examined minutely it will be found that the effects of subterranean elevating forces have heaved up the lower rocks in a series of an- ticlinal elevations within the general limits of the great coal fields, subdividing them into a series of lesser synclinal troughs ; while the denuding action of waters, and the natural wearing down of the surface, have swept away the whole of the coal series from much of the surface occupied by these lines of elevation. It is, therefore, only in these lesser troughs that the general mass of our coal will be found.
The anthracite region may be properly divided into four distinct groups or divisions, each comprising a series of minor basins or branches of the coal deposits. First, on the south, we have the Pottsville, Mine hill and Broad mountain basins, the former ex- tending eastward to the Mauch Chunk mines near the Lehigh, and westward to the neighbourhood of Pinegrove, where it forks out into two long points or branches, the southern one extending along north of the Sharp mountain to the Stony creek region, and reaching nearly to the Susquehanna river. The northern branch extends into Bear valley, between Williams' and Lykens' valleys, and terminates about twelve miles east of the Susquehanna.
North of the Broad mountain axis we have the Mahanoy and Shamokin division, which terminates westward within a few miles of the Susquehanna, and on the eastward is composed of a num- ber of smaller irregular basins, separated by local axes or lines of elevation. These basins terminate eastward on the north of the Broad mountain, some extending as far as the borders of Quakake valley.
East and northeast from this group of basins we have another series, consisting of seven or eight narrow basins, separated from
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GEOLOGY.
the last mentioned division by the deep red shale valleys of the head waters of the Catawissa, Little Schuylkill and other streams. In this division are included the Beaver meadow, Hazelton, Black creek, Buck mountain, Green mountain and other local coal fields.
Separated from all these by a great anticlinal axis which brings up the lower rocks in the valley of Wapwallopen creek, we find considerably farther northward the great Wyoming and Lacka- wanna basin, which extends from the north branch of the Susque- hanna, near Shickshinny, to a few miles above Carbondale on the Lackawanna, and terminates in a point not far from the southeast corner of Susquehanna county.
It may be observed as a general rule, that in the southern an- thracite basin the character of the coal changes as we proceed southwestward; for while we find near the Lehigh a compact, hard, firm coal, sometimes of rather difficult ignition, as we trace it towards the Susquehanna it gradually becomes more open in tex- ture, contains rather more impurities, and burns more freely, until near the western extremity of the same basin a coal is found which in some measure partakes of the bituminous character.
The coal of Broad Top mountain in Huntingdon and Bedford counties, though bituminous, is more hard and compact in its character and contains less bitumen than the coals west of the Al- legheny generally ; the same remark will apply in some measure to the beds found in the Southampton basin in the southeast of Somerset county. The coal beds west of the Allegheny mountain seem to show an increase of bituminous matter in their composi- tion as we proceed northwestward; it having been proved by analysis that while the coals nearest the Allegheny mountain average about twenty-one per cent. of bitumen, those in the neigh -- bourhood of Pittsburg and the western part of the State yield nearly forty per cent.
Though the gentle northwest dip of the rocks on the summit of the Allegheny, and the general apparent nearly horizontal posi- tion of the strata from this to the western part of the State, might lead to the idea that the coal beds are continuous over the whole of this great area; yet closer examination will show that this apparently undisturbed series of rocks has also been subject to the effect of upheaving forces, though certainly much less power- fully affected than the region east of the Allegheny. Several great lines of elevation enter our bituminous coal region from the south and extend their influence across a large portion of it, causing a series of undulations in the strata. On these anticlinal arches the lower rocks are brought up to the surface, and the coal bearing strata have disappeared, so that this region is separated also into a series of synclinal basins containing the coal, though generally of much greater extent than those of the anthracite coal fields.
The great anticlinal ridges of Negro mountain, Laurel hill and Chesnut ridge are sufficiently elevated to bring up the red shale with its limestone bands and even some lower formations, as may be seen in the gaps where streams pass through them. Beside
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GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
these there are, farther northward, many other less elevated broad anticlinal swells on which the rocks next below the coal appear ; but the coal strata themselves have been entirely swept away. In some of the northern counties the coal occupies only the summits of the highest hills, the denudation and wearing down of the val- leys having brought the general level of the country below the position occupied by the coal bearing rocks. It will thus be seen that only a limited portion of the so called bituminous coal country is actually occupied by productive beds of coal. This is men- tioned with the view of correcting an erroneous impression gen- erally entertained, and not by any means with a design to convey the idea that the quantity of. coal possessed by Pennsylvania can ever be exhausted, or even materially diminished by the mining and consumption of centuries.
Having thus given an outline of the geology of the State, we reserve the notice of more minute particulars relative thereto for our description of the separate counties.
Of what are geological formations composed ? What is the general course of the ranges of rock in Pennsylvania ? What is said of their incli- nation or dip ? How were the stratified secondary rocks formed ? By what canses were the different varieties produced ? From what do they derive their colour ? How may we account for their different degrees of inclination or slope ? What class of rocks is found in the southeastern part of the State ? Describe the range of the middle secondary red sandstone formation, and the kinds of rocks of which it is composed. In what parts of it is the conglomerate called Potomac marble found ? Describe the trap or green- stone rocks-their origin-and their frequent effect upon the neighbouring red shale. What is the extent of the primary rocks of the South mountain ? What is the character of the sandstone overlying the primary rocks, and
where does it occur ? What formation (II.) is next above this, and where may it be traced ? In what other places is this limestone found ? What valuable ore often occurs with it ? Describe the slate next in order above
the limestone. What useful materials are found in the slate formation ? In what parts of the State may it be seen ? In what mountains may the sand- stone (IV.) next above the slate be found ? What is said of the group of red and variegated shales next in order ? What valuable mineral is con-
tained in them ?
In what parts of the State does this formation occur ? Describe the limestone next mentioned. What does it contain ? What places can you mention where this limestone may be seen ? What kind of rock is next above this limestone ? Where does it occur ? Give a gen- eral description of the varieties of rock contained in the olive slate form- ation. (VIII.) What is there valuable or curious contained in it ? What is said of the difference in extent between horizontal and perpendicular strata ? What kinds of rock compose the next formation above the olive slate ? For what useful ? Describe the general range of these two forma- tions on a map of the State. What is the character of the sandstone (X.) next in order ? What is sometimes contained in it ? Name the mountains in which this sandstone occurs, and trace its range on the map. What is said of the red shale and sandstone next mentioned ? Are any useful ma- terials found in it ? Around what does this formation extend ? Mention the valleys in which it occurs. What is said of this formation near the bituminous coal region ? Describe the character of the formation (XII.) next below the coal. Where does it occur ? Of what use is a knowledge of its position when searching for coal? Where are the lowest coal beds generally found ? What kinds of rocks lie between the beds of coal ? What valuable materials are found in the slates and shales between the coal
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BOTANY.
beds ? What difference is there in this respect between the anthracite and bituminous regions ? What is said about the coal extending over the whole of these regions ? Into what four districts may the anthracite region be divided ? What is the extent of the first ?- of the second ?- of the third ?- of the fourth ? What change in quality is observed in the coal of the southern basin, as we proceed towards the Susquehanna ? What is said of the coal of Broad Top, and of that of Southampton in Somerset county ? Mention the change in the quality of bituminous coal as we pro- ceed northwestward. Are the beds of coal continuous over the whole country west of the Allegheny mountains ? Why are they not so ? In what ridges do the rocks below the coal series appear ? Why is coal only partially found in some of the northern counties ? What is said of the probability of exhausting the coal of Pennsylvania ?
7. BOTANY.
IT is not intended in this article, nor would it be consistent with the plan of our work, to give more than a mere outline of the varied and extensive series of vegetable productions which consti- tute the Flora of Pennsylvania. Our attention will, therefore, be chiefly confined to a brief notice of the more useful kinds of forest trees, and such plants as are most common or specially worthy of consideration on account of their connection with agriculture, arts, manufactures, commerce and medicine. The botanical names will be given for convenience of reference to works on the subject; but the use of scientific technical terms will be avoided, inasmuch as they might not be understood by the general reader ; our object being to give a plain and concise account of our native trees and plants, rather than a scientific arrangement and description.
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