USA > Vermont > The Lake Champlain and Lake George valleys, Vol. I > Part 3
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One unusual geologic feature of the territory included in this dis- cussion is the presence of mineral waters in the vicinity of Saratoga. The spring belt is shut in on all sides by barriers which consist of very thick masses of shales on the east and south and Pre-Cambrian rocks on the west and north. In all probability all of the water comes from a common source, imprisoned underneath a shale cover in Little Falls dolomite. It is brought to the surface by following the path of least resistance, escaping along a fault and through the thinner shales. The original springs outflowed at the surface of the earth, but since then these have been added to by the use of the drill.
Ever since the region first became known to man, springs have been flowing at Saratoga, and today they continue to spout health and happiness to an appreciative world. Although the amount of water cannot be said to be unlimited, it apparently is being constantly manu- factured within the earth according to fixed geologic and chemical principles. The exact source of the various mineral ingredients is a subject for speculation and debate. The varying degree of minerali- zation of the waters of the different springs is due to the fact that
*Carson, Russell M. L .: "Peaks and People of the Adirondacks."
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LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND LAKE GEORGE VALLEYS
they are all mixed waters, not obtaining all their dissolved mineral matter at one time or location, and being diluted or adulterated in varying proportions with fresh water from the surface. They all con- tain an abundance of carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, calcium, mag- nesium and sodium bicarbonate, but a complete lack of sulphates. As a result they differ from most of the other mineral springs of the world. This geologic treasure chest is an important gift of the Crea- tor to a territory already fabulously rich. Its presence has quite defi- nitely moulded the development of Saratoga County and its vicinity, and is today of particular importance at a time when the development of northeastern New York and Vermont centers more and more around resorts.
There are, however, many other physical resources that have con- tributed to the development of this region. It is quite obvious that the slopes of the Adirondacks would contribute great quantities of lumber and pulp wood. Even a casual observer realizes that the soil of certain sections produces fine crops and excellent fruit and sup- ports fine herds of dairy cattle. Underneath the beautiful exterior, however, are located many other geologic riches whose presence is not always so obvious but which are of considerable importance. New
York's main mineral wealth consists of building stones. With the exception of Vermont and Pennsylvania, it has more stone quarries than any other state. One stone, becoming increasingly important because of the constantly growing demand for concrete for building and road material, is limestone, and it is quarried extensively in Wash- ington and Warren counties. Also in Washington County, at Gran- ville, we find valuable quarries of red slate which is used chiefly for roofing. Warren County is the country's greatest source of garnet, a hard mineral found in very old rocks and used to grind and polish metals and glass. Iron ore is found in large quantities at Lyon Moun- tain and at Mineville. Situated near the latter deposits, the lake community of Port Henry became the most important iron center in the State, large quantities of the mineral being shipped from there. Graphite deposits exist in the general vicinity of Ticonderoga.
In Vermont, as in New York, it is obvious that the trees cover- ing the sides of the mountains should be of great importance. Ver- mont has been noted, not only for lumber, but also for its famous maple sugar products. The large dairy herds, the fine orchards, and
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OUR GEOLOGIC HERITAGE
ordinary crops testify to the richness of the soil in sections. Also, as in New York, there are less obvious resources within the earth. Slate is one of Vermont's geologic treasures, and this little State stands second among all the states in the supply of that product. From the Green Mountains are extracted large quantities of granite, which is as enduring and as unchanging in its virtues as the people who live there. One of the main centers of these deposits is at Barre, and some of the stone is appropriately named "Rock of Ages" granite. New England is the granite center of our Nation and Vermont contributes her full share. Although more granite is quarried within the State than marble, Ver- mont produces more of the latter product than any other state in the Union. It is very beautiful and much of it comes from the valley of Otter Creek, near the towns of Proctor and Rutland.
A knowledge of the geology of this region is essential to a com- plete appreciation of its past and present, and an understanding of its geographic features is necessary if we are to follow closely the politi- cal and economic development of northeastern New York and Ver- mont. History inevitably adapts itself to geographic and economic moulds as surely as the water of a brook follows channels formed by rocks and stones and soil. From the point of view of geography our section of the country certainly has been especially favored by the Creator and many are the natural features that have influenced our development, but of all these factors the waterways constitute the greatest gift and have affected our history the most. They represent the most important part of our geologic heritage.
CHAPTER II
The Indian Meets White Civilization
The early history of the Indian is shrouded in doubt, and compli- cated by contradictory legends. In all probability the Algonquins were the first extensive branch to occupy the eastern part of North America, reaching western New York from five to ten thousand years ago. At about the same time, another section of the human race occupied certain parts of the State and left some traces of its exist- ence in the Champlain valley. This latter group of people was either of Eskimo origin or else had been tremendously influenced by Eskimos. Not much is known about them, and it is not certain whether they preceded the Algonquins in this section or not.
For some thousands of years, the Algonquins ruled the waterways and the mountain peaks. The various tribes were never closely united with each other, but spread out over a large territory. Compared with other Indian races, the Algonquins are difficult to describe because there was so much variation from tribe to tribe. There was little resemblance between the barbarism of the Crees and the Ojibwas of the far north, for example, and the cultured Shawnees of the south. Among the eastern Algonquins, the Mohicans were outstanding, and at one time ruled Lake George and Lake Champlain, thus forming a buffer state between the other tribes and the Iroquois when the latter appeared on the scene. Their culture was quite diversified and there remains today evidence of their ability and achievements. If we com- pare the Algonquins with the Iroquois, the former were more indus- trious and inclined to be devoted to the arts of peace, their lack of unity tending to make them peaceful.
It is thought that the Iroquois arrived in New York as recently as 1300. At first the various tribes quarreled among themselves, but they eventually showed great resourcefulness in establishing their
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INDIAN MEETS WHITE CIVILIZATION
famous league. After that their rise was very rapid, crowding their enemies out in all directions and shoving the Mohicans over into New England. By 1650, they were in control of most of the Adirondack area, and all of Lake George and Lake Champlain. They constituted the greatest group of red men within the present boundaries of the United States and Canada, and were of great importance in the extinc- tion of French power in the New World. It is due in large measure to their firm alliance with England that North America is primarily English in language and in culture.
The name Iroquois did not originate among the Indians. It was bestowed upon them by the French, roughly meaning "The People Who Make Speeches," because of their natural eloquence. Many are the accounts existing of their great oratorical ability. They, how- ever, called themselves Hodenosaunee or "People of the Long House." Not only did they live in long houses, but their long, nar- row homeland, extending from the Hudson to Niagara, was in many ways similar to their dwellings. Their actual houses were solidly built of logs and bark, and sometimes were over a hundred feet in length, although very narrow. Every building was a series of single rooms, each containing a family, its own individual fire, and several dogs. The only entrances to the long house were at the ends, the families in the center being forced to make their way to their own abodes through the homes of their neighbors. The name which they gave themselves was a play on words which was decidedly picturesque and appropriate. Their homeland extended over a long, narrow area, stretching from the Hudson along the Mohawk valley to Lake Erie. Its walls were solidly constructed and secure like the sides of their houses. Within its borders were five separate groups of Indians, each with its own council fire. The eastern doorway was on the Hud- son with the western entrance at the other end of the confederacy.
Within their figurative long-house, the eastern doorway was guarded by the grim Mohawks. Of all the Iroquois, they were the fiercest fighters and the hereditary leaders in time of war. Their name, meaning a bear, was by itself enough to terrify other red peo- ples, to whom it was the symbol of destruction. They were the noblest "Romans" of them all. Next to the west lived the Oneidas, their name meaning "People of the Stone," derived from a sacred rock which they retained. They were religious, conservative and philo-
C & G-2
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LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND LAKE GEORGE VALLEYS
sophical. When threats of war loomed over the horizon, they were the restraining force because, as a rule, they preferred peace. It was their vote against taking the side of England in the American Revolu- tion which prevented unanimity among the Iroquois on that occasion, thus forcing the other tribes to fight as individuals, because a unani- mous vote was necessary when the Five Nations as a whole declared war. In the center of the long house were the Onondagas, the "Peo- ple of the Mountains," sometimes called "Keepers of the Hearth- fire." Although they were the smallest in numbers among the Iro- quois, they were the oldest and most respected. In their domain were held the council fires of the Five Nations. Beyond the Onondagas were the Cayugas, "The Younger Brothers," and the Senecas, "The Keepers of the Western Door." Neither of these groups commanded the prestige possessed by the other three tribes. Although the Senecas were by far the largest of the Iroquois groups, and occupied a strategic position in the long house, they were late comers. Later, the Tusca- roras were added to the confederacy, but for our purposes we shall confine ourselves to the original five nations. It is surprising to note that, at the period of their greatest prosperity, they probably had a population of only about twenty-five thousand. They certainly achieved a place in history far out of proportion to their numbers.
So great has been the reputation of the Iroquois as warriors that the tendency has been to forget their cultural attainments. Although they tortured prisoners and sometimes ate human flesh, they were artistic enough to decorate their pottery, advance far in picture-writing and create clever needlework designs in color. They cultivated sev- eral crops with success and possessed nice orchards of fruit. They were also clever in the construction of their houses and their defenses. In spite of these primitive accomplishments, however, the chief claim of the Iroquois to fame rests upon their military importance.
One great reason for their fame was doubtless their geographical position as owners of the gateway to the west as well as custodians of the Champlain valley at the time that England and France clashed in their duel for colonial empire. The Iroquois were in a position where they held the balance of power between the contestants. The English had a great numerical advantage over their rivals, but until the com- ing of Amherst and Wolfe this meant little. The habit of choosing incompetent generals, who quarreled among themselves, failed to fol- low up victories, and delayed when action was needed, proved costly
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INDIAN MEETS WHITE CIVILIZATION
and neutralized the disparity of numbers. Although the French were subject to friction between the Canadian colonists and the representa- tives of Old France, their quarrels and jealousies were generally for- gotten on the field of battle. Nor can they be accused of lethargy. Although relatively small in numbers, they had better generals than the English and their campaigns were conducted more efficiently. As a result, France and England were evenly matched and the Iroquois had it in their power to tip the scales either way. The nation that gained the assistance of this powerful confederacy, so firmly entrenched along the waterways of New York State, was likely to control the continent. The French could not feel at ease in Montreal if the Champlain valley was in enemy hands, and English power at Albany would be insecure so long as the watery avenue of conquest was under the control of others. For various reasons the Iroquois confederacy became firmly allied with England, thus bringing to that nation pos- session of the Mohawk, the upper reaches of the Hudson, Lake George and Lake Champlain.
A second great cause of the importance of the Iroquois was their might as a military machine. Relentlessly, their war parties swarmed up and down the continent. By 1670, they had completed their conquest of the Algonquins and Hurons, and had acquired pos- session of the whole country between Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and the northern bank of the St. Lawrence as far as Montreal. Constant inroads were made into New England, to the banks of the Mississippi, as far south as South Carolina, and also into the wilds of Michigan. The name of the Iroquois had become a ter- ror to red nations as well as white. Many are the legendary records of these great warriors. It has been said that if a single Mohawk was caught sight of by the Indians living in New England, they would raise a cry of warning from hill to hill and take to flight like sheep before wolves without dreaming of resistance. On one occasion a tribe of Long Island Indians presumed to sell land to some whites without first securing permission from the Iroquois. Suddenly a single warrior appeared, summoned the chiefs together to a council, and demanded who was responsible for the sale. When one of them admitted his guilt, the Mohawk killed him with a tomahawk and haughtily strode away through the crowd unharmed. An early his- torian decribes their warlike feats in glowing style :*
*Holden, A. W .: "History of Queensbury."
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LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND LAKE GEORGE VALLEYS
"They carried terror, and desolation along the Appalachian moun- tains; their fierce war-whoop rang along the valley of the Housatonic and resounded from the palisades on the Hudson; the cries of their victims ascended with the mists of St. Anthony's falls; their pæans of victory were echoed from the crags and cliffs of Lake Superior; and far or near the aboriginal nomads quailed and retreated from their wild battle cry, and for upwards of two centuries, they swept the continent, from the eternal barriers of ice at the north to the very verge of the tropics, with the brand of conquest, or the besom of destruction."
A third cause of the importance of the Iroquois was their political organization. Like the Romans, they were born lawyers and admin- istrators as well as warriors. Their great league was unique among races of their level of civilization. It is astonishing that a group of barbarians should attain such political perfection. The various tribes at first were disunited, but finally decided to draw together the hostile factions for the common good. According to Iroquois legends, Hia- watha was the founder of the league. There are many stories deal- ing with its formation, and I reproduce here the one of greatest beauty.
Hiawatha was the incarnation of wisdom. On one occasion he came down from his celestial home to dwell with the Onondagas and teach them to become the wisest counselors. While he was sojourn- ing there, the tribes were attacked by a mighty enemy from the north and utter annihilation seemed inevitable. He then called a council of all the tribes to meet at Onondaga Lake. When he arrived at the meeting place with his beautiful daughter, a volume of cloudy dark- ness began to descend from the sky. All of the Indians except Hia- watha and his daughter fled in terror. Suddenly a mighty bird descended upon the beautiful maiden and crushed her to death. Fol- lowing this tragedy, Hiawatha grieved bitterly for three days and nights. He then took his place in the council, and gave to each of the Five Nations its location and degree of importance. The advice of their sage was deliberated on until the next day, when the cele- brated Iroquois confederacy was formed and its details perfected. Then considering his mission on earth accomplished, Hiawatha deliv- ered a farewell address urging the Indians to maintain their alliance, and advising them to exclude alien tribes from the union. As his voice
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INDIAN MEETS WHITE CIVILIZATION
ceased, the air was filled with sounds of sweet music. Then Hiawatha was seen seated in his white canoe, rising in mid-air till the clouds shut out the sight, and the melody slowly faded away and ceased.
The Five Nations bore nearly the same relation to the league that our forty-eight American states do to the Federal Government. In general, each nation was independent as to domestic affairs, but in matters relating to the general welfare, or pertaining to relations with other races and among the nations themselves, the league had control. The supreme governing body of the confederacy was a General Coun- cil of fifty sachems each of whom was also a sachem in his own tribe. It could not convene itself, but could be called together by any one of the five tribal councils. A regular meeting was held once a year in the fall, with special sessions whenever they were needed. The sachems voted by tribes, each tribe counting as a unit, and unanimity was necessary for any common action. There was no head-sachem, although necessity caused the Indians to elect military leaders. Within the league, the civil power was dominated by the military. Every able- bodied man was subject to service upon demand, and the warriors called councils whenever they saw fit to approve or disapprove of pub- lic measures. In dealing with neighboring Indian nations, if they were related to them in any way, the Iroquois attempted to persuade them to join the confederacy. If they failed in this they went to war and often exterminated them. Alien tribes, not wiped out, were forced to pay tribute.
The Iroquois achieved their political union in spite of the fact that they lacked the cohesive power of a common language. Each nation had its own distinct dialect, although there was considerable resemblance in their speech. Pantomime was a big help in understand- ing an Indian from one of the other four nations. The Five Nations were united together by ties of blood, however, a bond much stronger than a common language. The various tribes such as the Tortoise, Wolf and Bear were divided up among the nations, so that if Mohawks fought Senecas, Tortoise would be arrayed against Tor- toise, Wolf against Wolf, and Bear against Bear. A Tortoise always looked upon any other Tortoise as a brother. Originally, there not only could be no intermarriage within the tribe, but four of the eight tribes were arrayed against the other four for marriage purposes, so that a Tortoise could marry a Snipe, Hawk, Heron or Deer, but not
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LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND LAKE GEORGE VALLEYS
a Bear, Wolf, or Beaver. Since husband and wife were, therefore, of different tribes, war between the nations within the league would disrupt households. Children belonged to the tribe of the mother, and all rank, titles and possessions passed through the female line. All the members of the Wolf tribe, whether Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas or Senecas, were brothers and sisters of each other by virtue of their descent from the same common female ances- tor. This consanguinity was the main reason for the success of the great confederacy, and shows why the Iroquois were much stronger and more compact than the Indians they conquered, such as the Algon- quins. Common traditions and legends, common interests, and similar religious beliefs are some of the other factors which tended to bring the Five Nations together, but blood was by far the strongest bond.
In other ways, also, the Iroquois were superior to their primitive neighbors, but in general it was the three factors mentioned above which made them lords and masters of so much of New York State. Their geographic position gave them control of the no man's land between the Lily of France and the Red Cross of England; their skill in the arts of war made them a matchless military machine for wilder- ness fighting; and in the third place, their political organization made them firmly united by ties of blood. It is little wonder then that the Iroquois played a part in our history far out of proportion to their numbers.
Since the Five Nations held the balance of power between the Eng- lish and the French, it is important to determine just what influence led the league to decide in favor of England. The reason most often given is the assistance that the great French explorer, Samuel de Champlain, gave to their enemies in an Indian engagement near Ticon- deroga in 1609. Champlain's own record of his journey up the lake, which he discovered and which today appropriately bears his name, was apparently very carelessly kept, but we can at least be certain that it was sometime in July that he discovered the lake. He told of see- ing a fish five feet long with a snout two and a half feet long, and of noticing snow on the tops of the Green Mountains in the middle of the summer, which would have been unusual to say the least. With two other Frenchmen, he was accompanying an Algonquin war party southward on an expedition against the Iroquois, intending to go by way of the portage at Ticonderoga over the waters of Lake George to the Mohawk country and then attack some outlying town. Before
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INDIAN MEETS WHITE CIVILIZATION
the party reached the southern end of Lake Champlain, however, it met a force of the enemy and a fight took place. It is not certain whether the conflict took place near Crown Point or Ticonderoga, but in all probability it was the latter. It was about ten o'clock in the evening when near a projection of land the Algonquins discerned a flotilla of Iroquois canoes. Their enemy saw them at about the same time and cries and war whoops pealed and reechoed over the dark- ened water. The Iroquois, possessing slower and heavier canoes, did not relish a battle on the lake, and made for the shore, where they immediately began to barricade themselves, hacking down trees with iron axes, captured from Canadian tribes, and their own stone hatchets. In the meantime the Algonquins remained on the lake, their canoes made fast together by poles. Let us hear the rest of the story from the great Frenchman himself :
"They sent two canoes from the fleet to know if their enemies wished to fight, who answered they desired nothing else; but that just then, there was not much light, and that we must wait for day to distinguish each other and that they would give us battle at sun rise. This was agreed to by our party. Meanwhile the whole night was spent in dancing and singing, as well on one side as on the other, mingled with an infinitude of insults and other taunts, such as the lit- tle courage we had; how powerless our resistance against their arms, and that when day would break we would experience this to our ruin. Ours, likewise, did not fail in repartee; telling them they should wit- ness the effects of arms they had never seen before; and a multitude of other speeches, as is usual at a siege of a town. After the one and the other had sung, danced and parliamented enough, day broke. My companions and I were always concealed, for fear the enemy would see us preparing our arms the best we could, being however sepa- rated, each in one of the canoes belonging to the savage Montagnais. After being equipped with light armour we each took an arquebus and went ashore. I saw the enemy leave their barricade; they were about two hundred men, of strong and robust appearance, who were coming slowly towards us, with a gravity and assurance which greatly pleased me, led on by three Chiefs. Our's were marching in similar order, and told me that those who wore three lofty plumes were the Chiefs, and that there were but these three and they were to be recognized by those plumes, which were considerably larger than those of their com-
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