USA > Ohio > Hamilton County > Madisonville > Indian Village Site and Cemetery Near Madisonville, Ohio > Part 35
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The collection from the Turner Group is small, but sufficiently homogeneous to afford hope that it may be a representative sample of the people who were responsible for the remarkable culture which Mr. Willoughby has described.
PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOL. IX
V. 9
A MAYA GRAMMAR
WITH BIBLIOGRAPHY AND APPRAISEMENT OF THE WORKS NOTED
BY ALFRED M. TOZZER
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U. S. A. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM 1921
COPYRIGHT, 1921 BY THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
TO THE MEMORY OF CHARLES P. BOWDITCH 1842-1921 THAT GREATEST OF ALL FRIENDS OF MAYA RESEARCH THROUGH WHOSE INITIATIVE AND AID THIS VOLUME HAS BEEN MADE POSSIBLE
PREFACE
As the first recipient of the Travelling Fellowship in American Archaeology of the Archaeological Institute of America, I spent the winters of the years 1901-1902 to 1904-1905 in Yucatan, Chia- pas, and Tabasco, Mexico, and northern Guatemala.1
A report on the ethnological work of this Fellowship was pub- lished as a special paper of the Archaeological Institute of Amer- ica, "A Comparative Study of the Mayas and Lacandones," (New York, 1907, xx, 195 p., xxix plates). In that report (p. v) a promise was made that the linguistic part of the work undertaken under the Fellowship would be published later. The long-delayed fulfillment of this promise is the present study of the Maya lan- guage. The permission of the Archaeological Institute, through its President, has kindly been given to have this work published by the Peabody Museum.
I can do no better than repeat what I said in 1907 regarding my obligations. "I desire at this time to express my appreciation and thanks to the three original members of the Committee on Ameri- can Archaeology, Mr. Charles P. Bowditch, Chairman, Professor F. W. Putnam, and Professor Franz Boas. To Mr. Bowditch, through whose initiative and aid the Travelling Fellowship in American Archaeology was founded, and to Professor Putnam,? both of whom have given unsparingly of their time in advice and counsel both before and during the four years of the Fellowship, and to Dr. Boas, who has been of great aid in his advice on the linguistic side of the work, I am deeply grateful."
These obligations are quite as heavy today as they were in 1907. Dr. Boas has continued to give me valuable aid and it is owing to the never-ending interest and generosity of Mr. Charles P. Bow-
1 For brief reports of the work of the Fellowship, see American Journal of Archaeology, 2d series, supplement, v. 6 (1902), p. 2-4; v. 7 (1903), p. 45-49; v. 8 (1904), p. 54-56; v. 9 (1905), p. 45-47.
? Professor Putnam has died since this paragraph was first written. His death took place on August 14, 1915.
vi
PREFACE
ditch that the Peabody Museum has been able to bring this study out as a Paper of the Museum.
I also wish at this time to thank some of my many friends in Yucatan who aided me throughout the time I was there. Mr. and Mrs. Edward H. Thompson and Mr. and Mrs. William James of Merida gave me abundantly of their generous hospitality. I have spoken in another place of my obligations to the late Señor Don Audomaro Molina and to Señor Don Juan Martinez Hernandez.
CONTENTS
Preface
PAGA
PART I. - A MAYA GRAMMAR
Introduction 3
Maya stock
3
Location .
3
Dialects
4
Maya dialect
5
Location
5
Hieroglyphic writing
6
Written Maya
.
Early grammars on Latin model
7
Grammars of Coronel, San Buenaventura, and Beltran 9
Maya of present time 14
15
Modern Maya grammars of Ruz, Seler, Palma y Palma, Lopez, etc. Provenance of material discussed 16
Phonetics 17
General character
17
Consonants
18
Vowels
19
Doubled vowels
20
20
Alphabets used by various authorities
21
Phonetic changes
23
Syncope, Synalephe and Apocope
23
Vocalic harmony
26
Avoidance of hiatus
26
Semi-vowels
26
Lacandone dialect
27
27
Accent
27
Grammatical processes
28
. Enumeration
28
Word composition
28
Affixes
28
Reduplication
29
Word order
29
vii
6
Notation
Character of stem
viii
CONTENTS
Ideas expressed by the grammatical processes 29
Word composition
29
Habitual action expressed by verb and object 29
Agent .
29
Gender of animals
29
Indefinite time in the future 29
Action just completed
30
Optative .
Suffix
30
Plurality in most nouns and some adjectives, -ob 30
Plurality in 2d person, nominal pronoun, -eš 30
Plurality in some adjectives, -ak 30
Plurality in some nouns, -a1 30
Exclusion in dual and plural, -on and -on-es 30
Inclusion in plural, -eš
30
Verbal pronoun as subject or object 30
Demonstrative pronoun, -a, -o, -u, with prefix lē 30
Reflexive pronoun, -ba 30
Abstract nouns, -1l
31
Collective nouns, -il
31
Attributive relationship, -il.
31
Gentilitious relationship. - il
31
Habituality, -tal
31
Comparative degree, il
31
Present time, transitive verb, -ik 31
Present time, intransitive verb of motion, -kah 31
Future time, intransitive and transitive verbs, -e 31
Future time, Class IV verbs, -tsal or -tal 31
Indefinite future, intransitive verbs, -ak and prefix bin. 31
Past time, intransitive and transitive verbs, Classes, II, III, IV, ah or h 31
Distant past, transitive verbs, m-ah 31
Causal verbs (Class Ib), -s . 31
Verbs of agent (Class IIIb), -t 32
Effect of action of verb on subject, -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul 32
Passive relationship, past time, -b or -n
32
Imperative, intransitive, -en, transitive, -e 32
Inchoative or inceptive verbs and those of Class II, -tal or -hal . 32
Reflexive verbs, -pahal 32
Adverbial ideas, -1l 32
Manner of action, prefix be-, suffix, -il and demonstrative 32
Numeral classifiers
32
Prefix
32
Gender of the " Nomen actoris," H- and š-
32
Time attached to nominal pronoun, tan-, t-, and he- 32
Time particle with intransitive verb in past, t-
32
Nominal pronoun, subject of verb or possessive
33
30
ix
CONTENTS
Ideas expressed by grammatical processes (continued).
Prefix (continued).
Semi-vowels used with nominal pronoun with vowel stems 33
Demonstrative, lē- 33
Relative relationship, lik- or likil- 33
Adverbial relationship such as ideas representing repetition, total- ity, etc. 33
Manner or state, be- with suffix -il and demonstrative pronouns . 33
Direction of motion 33
Negative, ma-
33
Prepositions
33
Reduplication
33
Distant past in intransitive verb
33
Iterative or frequentative verb
33
Plural with some adjectives
33
Plural with some participles
34
Diminutive
34
Word order
34
Syntax
34
Noun
34
Fundamental place in language
34
Incorporation in verb 35
36
Classification . 36
Abstract nouns
36
Collective nouns 36
Gender
36
37
Case
37
Attributive relationship
38
Gentilitious relationship
38
Habituality
38
Diminutives
38
Pronoun
38
Forms of the pronoun; nominal and verbal 39
Distinctive features 39
Number
40
Persons expressed
40
Pronoun with vowel stems
41
Verbal pronoun, when used 42
Nominal pronoun, when used
43
Time particles
43
Contraction of time particles
43
Present time, tan
44
Potential mood, k- or ki- 46
Future time, he-
46
1
Number
Incorporation to express agent
x
CONTENTS
Syntax (continued).
Pronoun (continued).
Time particles (continued).
Past time, t-
Action just completed, s'ok
Case
Subjective
48
Objective
48
Possessive pronoun
49
Natural possession, -1l
49
Demonstrative pronoun, lē- - a, le- - 0, lē- - e te-la, tē-lo, tē-le 50
50
Reflexive pronoun, -ba 50
Reciprocal pronoun, tan-ba 51
51
Verb
51
Classification
51
Class I, Action or state, -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul 52
a, Pure action or state
53
b, Causal, s 53
Root in be
53
Class II, Verbs in -tal, " endowed with,'
54
Class III, Neuter stems 55
a, Stem alone 56
b, Agent, t 56
Roots in kin and kun
57
Verbs in -ankil 58
Class IV, Auxiliary " to be " 58
Verb yan
59
Class V, Irregular and defective verbs 60
Bin-el, to go 60
Tal-el, to come 60
Qat, desire
60
P'ek, dislike
61
Tak, desire .
61
Qabet, necessary
61
Suk, accustom
62
Pat, ability 62
Nama, obligation 62
62
Qaah, to remember 63
63
Utšul, to succeed, to happen
63
Verbs with stems in -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul
63
Intransitive verb 64
Transitive verb
64
Transitive to intransitive form
65
Intransitive to transitive form
66
47
47
48
Interrogative pronouns
Tuub, to forget
Tšik-pahal, to appear
xi
CONTENTS
Syntax (continued).
Verb (continued).
Tense
Intransitive verb
68
Present time
68
tan and the nominal pronoun
68
ka or kah with verbs of motion
68
Future time
70
he and the nominal pronoun
70
Indefinite future, bin- - ak 70
Verbs of Class IV
71
Past time
71
Class I, shortened stem and verbal pronoun 71
Class II, -ah and the verbal pronoun
72
Class III, n-ah and the verbal pronoun .
73
Distant past in -n-ah-ah and the verbal pronoun
74
Class IV, -h and the verbal pronoun
74
Perfect tense with o'ok and the nominal pronoun 75
Transitive verb
75
Present time, -ik
75
Future time, -ik and final -e
76
Indefinite future, bin and final -e
76
Past time, -ah
78
Action just completed, s'ok and the nominal pronoun -ki with idea of " since " or " after "
79
Distant past, m-ah
79
Indicative
80
Potential
81
Imperative
81
Intransitive, -en and the shortened stem 81
Transitive, -e
83
Optative, qat and the future stem
84
Passive
84
Present time.
84
Class I, Causal s and suffix -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul 84
Class IIIa, -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul
85
Future time
86
Present passive stem and -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul
86
Present passive stem with bin and suffix, ak Past time . 87
-ah-b or -ah-n with verbal pronoun 87
Distant past, -ah-ah-n 87
Verbal nouns .
87
Past participle, -an
88
Modes
80
Subjunctive
80
Class IIIb, agent t and -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul
85
86
66
79
xii
CONTENTS
Syntax (continued). Verb (continued).
Verbal nouns (continued).
Passive participle, -bal, -bil
89
Infinitive
After verbs denoting purpose, desire, ability, etc. 89
Inchoative or Inceptive verbs, -hal or -tal 90
Iterative or Frequentative verbs
91
Reflexive verbs
91
Reciprocal verbs
92
Clauses
92
Purpose or motive, future construction
92
Use of ka with future in -ak
92
Relative relation with lik or likil
93
Temporal clauses, introduced by ka
93
Interrogative .
94
With wa 94
Sign of past omitted 94
94
Questions asking permission
94
Adjective
Order
95
Number, -ak, -tak, -lak
95
Reduplication 96
Comparison 96
Comparative, -il 96
96
Diminutive
97
Numerals
97
Terms given by the early Spaniards
97
Terms used in the hieroglyphic writing
97
Terms used at present time
98
Beltran's numeration
100
Numeral classifiers
103
Adverb
Position
104
Use of -il or -ik with verbal pronoun and adverbs 104
Negation, ma 104
Repetition, ka
105
Totality, la 105
Manner or state, be 106
Demonstrative
106
Prepositions and postpositions .
107
93
Relative clauses
93
92
Ability, knowledge, desire, fear, etc.
Conditional, introduced by wa or keš
When answer is in the negative
95
Superlative, hutš
104
89
xiii
CONTENTS
PART II-MAYA TEXTS
Introduction
111
Material available 111
Grammatical structure 111
Lexicography
112
Orthography
113
Chirography
Possibility of translation
114
Indians of Chan Santa Cruz (1900)
115
Lacandone chant (1902)
118
Maya witch story (1866)
119
Prophecy of Chilam Balam, Versions from the Chilam Balam de Chu-
mayel and de Tizimin and from Lizana . .
120
Chilam Balam de Chumayel. Passage, p. 77, 78
130
PART III - AN APPRAISEMENT OF WORKS RELATING TO THE MAYA LANGUAGE
History of Maya linguistic research .
139
Writers of the XVI, XVII, XVIII centuries
139
Villalpando
140
Solana
Xiu, Aguilar, Mena
141
Coronel, San Buenaventura, Beltran de Santa Rosa, etc. 142
Avendaño
142
Joaquin Ruz
142
Pio Perez
143
Fletcher, Henderson, Kingdon
145
Brasseur de Bourbourg 146
Carl Hermann Berendt 146
Carrillo y Ancona
147
Daniel Garrison Brinton
148
William Gates
148
Juan Martinez Hernández
149
Bibliographies
150
Bibliography of bibliographies
150
Missing Authorities
150
XVI century
151
XVII century
152
XVIII century
153
Landa
141
141
Introduction
139
114
xvi CONTENTS
Texts (continued).
The Catechism (continued).
The Mass.
198
Trinitate Dei
198
Lord's prayer
The Bible .
199
St. Luke, etc.
199
St. John .
200
St. Matthew and St. Mark .
200
Sermons
200
XVI century . 201
XVII century
201
XVIII century .
201
xix century
202
Secular Texts
202
Crónica de Chicxulub (Pech MS.) 202
Legal documents
203
Xiu chronicles
203
Titulos de Ebtun
204
Libro de Cacalchen
204
Crónica de Mani .
205
Documentos de Sotuta 205
Documentos de Ticul 205
Titulo de Acanceh
205
Papeles de Xtepen
205
Political papers .
205
Poems, songs, folk-lore, etc.
206
Lacandone texts
207
PART IV - A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS RELATING TO THE MAYA LANGUAGE
Introduction
211
Bibliography
213
APPENDICES
I, Paradigms of verb classification 283
II, Paradigms from Beltran, San Buenaventura, Coronel, Lopez, and Tozzer 286
III, List of numeral classifiers
290
IV, Comparative vocabularies from Peto, Sotuta, Tizimin, and Vallado- lid with corresponding terms from the Motul, San Francisco, and Ticul dictionaries 293
Introduction
293
Vocabularies
295
Numeration
301
199
PART I GRAMMAR
PART I GRAMMAR
INTRODUCTION
MAYA STOCK. Location. The Maya linguistic stock stands with Nahuatl as the two most important languages of Middle America. With the exception of the Huastecan region, north of Vera Cruz on the Panuco River, the territory occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is practically continuous, including the greater part of the two southernmost states of Mexico, Chiapas and Tabasco, the `peninsula of Yucatan which is composed of the Mexican states of Yucatan and Campeche, the Mexican territory of Quintana Roo, and British Honduras, Guatemala, and the northern part of Hon- duras. The Maya territory in Guatemala is broken up by islands of Nahuatl speaking people and by a few independent stocks such as Xinca.
The geographical unity of the Maya speaking peoples is remark- able when one takes into consideration the colonies of Nahuatl speaking peoples scattered along the Pacific coast of Central Amer- ica even as far south as the Isthmus of Panama. The Mayas seem to have been content to remain very much in one place and it is evident that it was not their general custom to send out colonies to distant parts of the country. Moreover the wandering of the Mayas among themselves in the comparatively small territory oc- cupied by them is not shown by investigation to have been great.
Most of the dialects of the Maya seem to have been identified with certain localities from the time of the earliest Spanish records down to the present. There does not seem to have been that shifting of population which one might naturally expect. The geographical conditions may have had something to do with this seeming lack of mingling of the people of one dialect with those of another. The peninsula of Yucatan is comparatively isolated from the rest of the Maya territory and the dialect spoken there is very
3
4
GRAMMAR
little changed as far as can be made out from the earliest times of which we have records. The various mountain ranges in the south often render communication difficult and a mountain system often separates distinct linguistic differences as regards dialects of the Maya. Geography cannot, however, in all cases explain the free- dom of mixture of two dialects occupying neighboring territory.
Spanish speaking people are found in almost all parts of the country occupied by the Mayas and their influence has, of course, been very great in changing the native dialects. The Indians in most cases have picked up enough Spanish to make themselves in- telligible in all parts of the country. When intercourse is to be carried on between the people speaking two different dialects of Maya, Spanish is usually the medium. This may explain in part the distinct dialectic areas still to be made out.
The Maya stock has no affiliation as far as can be made out with any other language of Mexico or Central America. Some authori- ties claim that the Zapotec is nearer akin to Maya than it is to Nahuatl. Maya is morphologically distinct from the latter.
Dialects. The Maya stock has a large number of dialects which may be divided according to their structure into a certain number of groups. Stoll's classification (1884) is the most satisfactory one and it has been followed in the main here.1 The different divisions are as follows:
1. Maya group proper including the Maya of Yucatan, the Itza or Peten, the Lacandone and possibly the Mopan dialects.
2. Tzental or Tzeltal group including the Tzental, Chontal of Tabasco, Tzotzil, Chañabal, and Chol (Cholti and Chorti) dialects.'
3. Mam group including the Mam, Ixil, and Aguacateca dia- lects.3
4. Quiche group including the Quiche, Cakchiquel, Tzutuhil, and Uspanteca dialects.
5. Pokom or Pokonchi group including the Kekchi, Pokoman and Pokonchi dialects.
1 For other classifications, see p. 158-160.
* Sapper (1897, p. 393) makes a Chol group including Chontal, Chorti, and Chol. Gates (1920, p. 606) also makes a separate group of Cholti and Chorti.
' Gates (1920, p. 606) also includes in this group Solomeca, Jacalteca, Chuje, Chicomucelteca, and Motozintleca.
5
INTRODUCTION
6. Huasteca.1
A further classification can be made based on the use of the pro- noun. In the Maya, Tzeltal and Mam groups the verbal pronoun is a suffix: in the Quiche and Pokom groups this pronoun is a prefix.'
The relative antiquity of the various dialects is a subject which has not received much study. The great length of time necessary for the development of these dialects from a mother-tongue must be taken into consideration not only from a linguistic but also from an archaeological point of view.'
MAYA DIALECT. Location. The language treated in this paper is the Maya dialect of the Maya linguistic stock." This dialect is spoken by the natives of the entire peninsula of Yucatan, a larger territory than that occupied by any of the other dialects. This idiom is commonly regarded as the purest of all the Maya dialects owing to the isolation of Yucatan.' The language may show a cer- tain pureness and stability lacking in other places where the Maya stock is spoken but there is little reason to suppose that the Maya dialect is the most primitive and that it was from a language such as is spoken in Yucatan that all the other Maya dialects have sprung. Investigations have not gone far enough into the com- parative morphology of the Maya for us to ascribe with certainty a primordial character to any of the various dialects. It is com-
1 Sapper (1905, p. 9) has the Chicomucelteca of southeastern Chiapas as a dialect of the Huasteca. He also gives here the approximate number speak- ing the various dialects.
' Compare Seler, 1887. The page references throughout this paper to this work of Seler apply to the 2d edition, published in v. 1 of his collected works.
: Stoll (1884, p. 157) estimates the period of 2000 years as the shortest time required to explain the difference between Maya and Cakchiquel.
' Henceforth when speaking of the Maya, the dialect alone will be under- stood unless the term Maya stock is employed.
' Berendt (1878, p. 7) writes in this connection, "The Maya language proper (Mayathan) is spoken through the whole peninsula of Yucatan, the ancient name of which was Maya. It is the purest and, at present, the most highly developed of all the languages of the family, and is used not only by the Indians, but also by the greater part of the white and mestizo population; in the interior of Yucatan I have met with white families who do not under- stand one word of Spanish. The Maya language is likewise generally used in writing and in printing books of instruction and devotion."
6
GRAMMAR
monly supposed, however, that Huasteca shows evidences of greatest age with Mam second in point of time.
No attempt will be made in this study to treat the comparative aspects of the Maya dialect with other dialects of this stock.1
Hieroglyphic Writing. In the treatment of the Maya language I shall omit completely any discussion of the phonetic character of the Maya hieroglyphics. There is reason to suppose that there is a number of distinct symbols in the hieroglyphic writing of Central America which denote certain phonetic characters of the Maya speech .? For the purpose of this paper, however, the Maya will be regarded as a language unrecorded up to the time of the Conquest.
A complete elucidation of the hieroglyphic inscriptions will prob- ably be impossible until an advance has been made in our ac- quaintance with the phonetic elements in the composition of the glyphs. Within recent years our knowledge in this respect has not advanced at all in comparison with the gains made in deciphering the numerical parts of the hieroglyphic writing. . A successful cor- relation of the Maya language and the Maya hieroglyphs holds out a prospect of the greatest interest and importance from the point of view of Maya research.ª
Written Maya. The Spaniards found the natives speaking the Maya language. Their missionaries throughout New Spain easily recognized the impossibility of accomplishing any work in christian- izing the people without first learning the native languages. This they set about doing in every case and many of the Spanish Padres became proficient in the languages of the conquered peoples.'
1 Seler (1887) has successfully attempted this. See also the works of Charencey.
? See Bowditch, 1910, p. 254-258 for a discussion of this point.
' It is needless to comment here on the "Landa Alphabet " and its failure to produce the results hoped for.
Zavala (1896, p. iv, v) gives the following quotations from the records of the Third Mexican Council which considered affairs relating to Yucatan. I give these verbatim as quoted by Zavala although the Latin is incorrect in several places. "Clericos in regionibus Indorum beneficia cum onere obtinentes in materna erumden regionum lingua examinent, Episcopi, et quos repererint lingua hujusmodi ignaros, sex mensium spatio prefinito, ad discendam linguam compellant, admonentes eos, quatemus elapso termino, si linguan hujusmodi non didiscerint, beneficium quod obtinent, ipso facto, vacabit, et alteri de co fiet pro-
7
INTRODUCTION
One of the first acts was to record the native languages plioneti- cally as nearly as they could with the Spanish characters at their command. It was impossible to write down many of the sounds occurring in the different native dialects with the Spanish letters and, in some cases, arbitrary signs or marks were adopted to desig- nate these sounds as, in the Maya, the inverted c (5) was early used as the sign for a ts sound frequent in the language.
The natives soon learned to write their own languages, which hitherto had been unrecorded, by using the same Spanish char- acters and the signs adopted by the Spaniards. To their ability in this line we owe many valuable documents connected with the native culture of the country, manuscripts written in the native language but with Spanish characters.1
Early grammars on Latin model. The Spanish priests did not stop with translations of documents into the native languages but they wrote grammars and collected vocabularies as well. These grammars and dictionaries exist in great numbers. There is hardly a dialect spoken in Mexico or Central America that has not some sort of a grammar dealing with the structure of the language. The difficulty met with in using these grammars written by the Spanish is the same as that found wherever a primitive language has been studied and recorded along the lines and with the corresponding forms found in Spanish, Latin, or some other Indo-European gram- mar. The Spanish priest thought he had successfully written a grammar of a native language if he had found forms in that lan-
visio. .. . In quo, et in Regula decima octava Cancellaric Apostólica contientic Episcoporum onerantur." (Lib, III, Tit. 1 De doctr. cura, V.)
"La Regla decimaoctava, dice Arrillaga, es la vigesima que estampa Murillo en el tit. de Institutionibus, num. 82; y en ella se prescribe que la provision de algun beneficio parroquial, hecha en alguna persona que no sepa el idioma de sus feligreses, ni pueda explicarse en el, aun cuando proceda del mismo Papa, sea nula y de ningun valor" (Notas al Cons. III mex.).
"20. Item voluit, quod si contingat, ipsum (Urbano VIII) alicui persona de parochiali Ecclesia, vel quovis alio beneficio exercitium cura animarum parochi- anorum quomodolibet habente, prouideret, nisi ipsa persona intelligat, & intelli- gibiliter loqui sciat idioma loci, ubi Ecclesia, vel beneficium huiusmodi consistit, prouisio, seu mandatum, & gratia desuper, quoad parochialem Eccleisam, vel beneficium huiusmodi, nullius sint roboris vel momenti."
1 The Books of Chilam Balam (p. 182) are examples of Maya texts written by the natives phonetically.
8
GRAMMAR
guage to correspond to every term in his Spanish grammar. The desire to find words which fitted the different categories of thought expressed in his own grammar often outweighed his keenness in realizing that many grammatical forms used in Spanish could not be properly expressed in the native language. Parallels were sought for every form in the Spanish or Latin. The investigators usually found some native term which seemed to them to conform to the same expression in their own language. If a native did not seem able at first to give words for the pluperfect tense in his language, the more one insisted that there must be such forms the sooner the native would give something which superficially seemed to be a pluperfect.
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