USA > Ohio > Hamilton County > Madisonville > Indian Village Site and Cemetery Near Madisonville, Ohio > Part 38
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k-na-on, our (his and my house). k-na-on-es, our (their and my house).
6. Inclusion of person spoken to. In plural by -eš: k-na-eš, our (your and my) house.
7. Verbal pronoun. - en, -etš, etc., when used as subject or ob- ject of verbs and as the auxiliary, to be:
putš-en, I hit, I am a hitter. tan putš-ik-en, you are hitting me. winik-en, I am a man.
8. Demonstrative pronoun. - a, -o, and -u with the prefix le -:
lē winik-a, this man here.
lē winik-o, that man there. lē winik-e, that man at a distance.
9. Reflexive pronoun. By -ba: .
tin putš-im-ba (putš-ik-in-ba) 1 am hitting myself.
31
IDEAS EXPRESSED
10. Abstract nouns. By -il: kohan-il, sickness.
11. Collective nouns. By -il: u-yoooil-il, the poor.
12. Attributive relationship. By -il: u tunits-il qaq, the stone of the fire.
13. Gentilitious relationship. By -il: Ho-il, a Meridano.
14. Habituality. By -tal: kohan-tal, a sickly man. 15. Comparative degree. By -il: uo na, a gcod house. us-il na, a better house.
16. Present time in transitive verb. By -ik: tin s'on-ik, I am shooting something.
17. Present time in intransitive verb of motion. By -kah: nak-1-in-kah (nak-al-in-kah) 1 am climbing.
18. Future time in intransitive and transitive verbs. By -e: hen s'on-e, I shall shoot. hen s'on-ik-e, I shall shoot something.
19. Future time in verbs of Class IV. By -tšal or -tal: hen winik-tšal-e, I shall become a man.
20. Indefinite future in intransitive verbs. By åk with stem bin: bin nak-ak-en, I am going to climb.
21. Past time in intransitive and transitive verbs of Classes II, III; IV. By -ah or h:
tin s'on-ah, I shot something. tši-1-ah-en (tši-tal-ah-en) 1 lay down. J'on-(n) ah-en, I shot. keel-h-en, 1 was cold.
22. Distant past in transitive verb. By ma-ah: tin puts-m-ah, I hit something a long time ago.
23. Causal verbs (Class I b). By s: tin kim-s-ik, 1 kill something, I cause something to die.
32
GRAMMAR
24. Agent (Class III b). By t: tin mis-t-ik, I am sweeping or 1 do something with a broom.
25. Effect of action of verb on subject. In some cases this serves to express a passive relationship. By -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul:
tin lub-ul, I am falling or my being affected by a fall.
26. Passive relationship, past tense. By b'or n: nas-s-ah=b-en, 1 was approached.
J'on-ah-n-en, I was shot.
27. Imperative. Intransitive by -en, transitive by -e: J'on-en, shoot! J'on-e, shoot something!
28. Inchoative or Inceptive verbs and verbs of Class II. By -tal or -hal:
tin winik-tal, I am becoming a man.
29. Reflexive verbs. By -pahal: tun tšun-pahal, it begins itself.
30. Adverbs. When the verbal pronoun is used and the adverb precedes the verb, the verb takes the suffix -il:
tšitš šimbal-n-ah-il-en, 1 walked rapidly.
31. Manner of action. When this is expressed by prefix be, thus, the verbal form takes -il, and the demonstrative suffixes -a, -e, or -0: be tal-il-en-a, in this way, I came.
32. Numeral classifiers (see p. 103).
THE PREFIX. This is found to express the following relations and ideas:
1. Gender of the " Nomen actoris." H- for male, š- for female: H-men, a shaman, literally, one who knows. š-men, a female shaman.
2. Time, attached to the nominal pronoun. tan for present, t for past, and he for future:
tan-in (tin) s'on-ik, I am shooting something.
t-in s'on-ah, ] shot something.
hen (he-in) s'on-ik-e, I shall shoot something.
3. Time, used with the intransitive verb in the past. By t: t-puts-en, I hit or performed the act of hitting.
33
IDEAS EXPRESSED
4. Nominal pronoun. When used as subject of the verb or as the possessive:
tin (tan-in) putš-ik, I am hitting something. Juan, u huun, John, his book.
5. The semi-vowels. When used with the nominal pronoun with vowel stems. These have a phonetic and syntactical history (p. 26):
6. Demonstrative. le- with the suffixes -a, -0, -e: lē-winik-a, this man here.
7. Relative relationship. By lik or likil:
likil in wen-el the object in which 1 sleep, my hammock.
8. Adverbial relationships. Such as those indicating repetition with ka, totality with la, and a large number of others:
tin ka-bin, I come again. tin la-wuk-ik, 1 am drinking all of it.
9. Manner or state. By be and the suffix -il with the demon- stratives -a, -e, -o:
bē-tal-il-en-o, in that way, I came.
10. Direction of motion. pai, motion towards, pilis, motion away, etc .:
tin-pai-bala-ok-t-ik, I am rolling something towards me with the foot.
11. Negative. By ma: m-in (ma-in) qati, I do not wish to.
12. Prepositions (see p. 107). t-in na, in my house. yoqol in na, above my house.
REDUPLICATION. This is syllabic in form. The process seems to have no effect upon the vowel of the stem. It is employed to ex- press the following relations and ideas:
1. Distant past in the intransitive verb: šimbal-n-ah-ah-n-en, I ran a long time ago.
2. Iterative or frequentative verbs: tin bi-bi qab, I tap with my fingers frequently.
3. Plural with some adjectives: ta-taš be-ob, smooth roads.
34
GRAMMAR
4. Plural with some participles: 1
tšak, to cut with a blow. tšak-an, a thing cut. tšak-an-tšak, things cut.
5. Diminutive with nouns and adjectives: :
kah, pueblo. sa-sak, medio blanco.
ka-kah, small pueblos.
noh or nohotš, great.
sak, white. no-noh or no-nohots, grandecillo.
WORD ORDER. In general the word order does not differ greatly from that in English. The Maya, as spoken at the present time, generally follows the word order of Spanish. One exception to this rule is to be noted, namely, the subject of the verb when expressed by a noun follows the verb: 3
u kim-s-ah Juan Pedro, Peter killed John.
u luum kah-1-ik in yum, good is the land in which my father lives.
SYNTAX THE NOUN
FUNDAMENTAL PLACE IN LANGUAGE. The noun should be con- sidered first as it plays a far greater part in the development of the language than has been supposed in the past. The important place has always been given to the verb.' It is not true to say that all verbs were originally nouns but the relation between the verb and the noun is very intimate. There are a far greater number of verbs made directly from nouns than there are nouns from verbs.5
1 Compare Seler, p. 111.
' Beltran (§ 128) writes, " Pero se ha de notar tambien, que no siempre esta reduplicacion significa el frecuente ejercicio del verbo ó nombre, porque a veces con ella se minora su significacion, v.g .: tšuhuk, lo dulce, tš'utšuhuk, lo que no está dulce, tšotš, lo salado, tšotšotš, lo poco salado: tšokow, lo caliente, tšotšokow, lo poco caliente ó lo tibio. Ay otros vocablos que aunque tienen reduplicacion no son frecuentativos, porque ab origine se pusieron para significar aquella cosa sin frecuencia, v.g .: J'us'uki, lo blando, tšatšak, lo encarnado, sasak, lo blanco &c." For other forms using reduplication, see Palma y Palma, p. 150-156.
3 Compare Seler, p. 89, 120.
4 Seler writes (p. 66) "denn der Kern der ganzen Sprache (el blanco de este idioma) liegt, wie der Grammatiker Beltran mit Recht bemerkt, in dem Verbum. Wer das Verbum versteht, versteht die Sprache."
§ Seler (p. 89) explains all transitive verbs with objects as "nominal themes of passive significance."
35
THE NOUN
Stems which seem to occupy this half-way position have been called neutral (Class III):
From los, fist, tin (tan-in) loš-ik, I am hitting something with my fist, literally, present time my fisting it (present time).
The essentially nominal character of the Maya is seen not only in the verbal stems made directly from nouns but also in words de- noting action or state and the effect of this action or state on the subject (Class I). This class of verbs are really predicated nouns. The objective pronoun often conveys the verbal idea.
Directly from nouns we have:
From mis, a broom; mis-en, I am a sweeper, literally a broomer; mis-n- ah-en, I was a sweeper, or I swept.
From o'ib, writing; o'ib-en, I am a writer.
From verbs of action or state,
From kimi, death; tin kim-il, I am dying, or my being affected by death; tin kim-s-ik, I am causing something to die, or my killing something; kim-en, I died; tin kim-s-il, I am being caused to die, or my being killed.
Kim-il is the stem of the intransitive, present, passive relation- ship, kim-s-il of the intransitive, present, passive, and kim-en, the past of the intransitive, active, with the verbal pronoun. As will be pointed out later (p. 64), the distinction made in Spanish be- tween the active and passive voices is not found in Maya.
Another feature of the nominal character of Maya is seen in the fact that the nominal pronoun used with predicative verbal ex- pressions is fundamentally a nominal expression showing possessive relationship: 1
tin mis-t-ik, I am sweeping, literally, my brooming something.
INCORPORATION IN VERB. A noun, the object of a transitive verb, may become incorporated in the verb and the unity of the two made so close that the verb passes from the form of the transitive with its object to an intransitive in form. This is found especially in words whose meanings express some habitual action as chop-wood, carry-water, spend-money, etc:
tin tša-ik ha, I am carrying water, less common, tša-ha-in-ka,
tin tša-ah ha or tsa-ha-n-ah-en, 1 carried water.
hen tša-ik ha-e or bin tša-ha-n-äk-en, I shall carry water.
1 Compare Seler, p. 66.
36
GRAMMAR
The transitive form is usually found in the present and future tenses and the intransitive in the past.1
Incorporation to express the agent. Another type of incorporation is seen when the noun is used to denote the agent by which the action of the verb is accomplished: ?
tin pai-bala-ok-t-ik, I am rolling something towards me with the foot (ok). tin wuo'-tse-t-ik, I am bending something with a stick (tše).
tin wop-tunitš-t-ik, 1 am breaking something with a stone (tunits).
CLASSIFICATION. There is no classification of nouns with the ex- ception of those used with numerals where there is a broad division of those animate and inanimate together with many minor classes (p. 103).
· ABSTRACT NOUNS. These are made by adding the suffix -il to the stem : 8
kohan-il, sickness.
kimako-il, happiness. noh-il, greatness.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS. There is a class of collective nouns made from the preceding abstract forms by prefixing the possessive pro- noun of the 3d person singular. The root in -1 is used when verbs are thus used:
u-kohan-il, the sick. u-y-oooil-il, the poor. u-kim[i]l-il, the dead.
GENDER. No gender is expressed with one exception. In the "nomen actoris" male and female are shown by the prefixes H, for male, and š, for female.4 The palatal spirant is rather difficult to pronounce correctly. It is a weak breathing and, in many cases,
1 Beltran (§ 58) notes the incorporation of the object in this form and also the fact that the form is made intransitive in the past tense. He finds fault with San Buenaventura who (fol. 6 ob.) makes the past in ni (3d person) and not in n-ah.
? Compare Palma y Palma (p. 324) who writes, "Hay verbos que a más del acto, expresan el objecto con que se lleva a cabo": maš-tun-te, machácalo con piedra.
pex'-tun-te, apésgalo con piedra. pes'-qab-te, apésgalo con la mano.
' Compare Seler, p. 113.
‘ Beltran (§ 23) gives the particles as ah and is (ix) but he adds that the
37
THE NOUN
passes almost unobserved. It is the only case where this sound is found:
H-men, the shaman, literally, one who knows.
š-men, the female shaman.
H-ooqot, the male dancer.
š-ooqot, the female dancer.
Gender is also shown, especially in the names of animals, by word composition using the words šibil, male, and tš'upul, female. These forms are also used in some cases with words denoting human beings: 1
šibil-pal, boy. tš'upul-pal, girl.
NUMBER. The singular and plural alone are found in the.noun. The plural ending is usually -ob as seen in the third person of the verb:
na, house. na-ob, houses.
When a noun ends in -al, plurality is shown by a duplication of the last syllable:
tš'upal, girl. tš'upal-al, contracted to tš'upl-al, girls.
The usual plural ending, -ob may be used in these forms in addi- tion to the -al: 2
tš'upal-al-ob.
CASE. There is no case expressed with nouns.3
more elegant (mas garbosamente) forms are h and š (x). San Buenaventura and Coronel do not mention the feminine prefix š. Compare Seler, p. 100.
Palma y Palma (p. 221) finds fault with Beltran for calling these particles "artículos." He writes (p. 221) "No determinan nunca equivaliendo a el, un; de modo que si se les quiere llamar artículos por darles algún nombre como las demás partes de la oración, son artículos sui generis cuyo oficio apenas se asemeja en algo al de los castellanos."
1 1 failed to find the form in -ton given by Lopez (§ 27) to indicate the mas- culine sex of animals; ton wakaš, the bull. ton peq, the dog.
? Lopez (§ 23) does not recognize the uncontracted form except when the regular plural ending, ob, is used in addition to -al.
3 Beltran (§ 18) states that there is no sign for the nominative and accusa- tive. He gives the genitive of possession as u but this is really the possessive pronoun, 3d person. He gives a dative in ti or tial, a vocative in é, or bee, and ablatives in oglal, men or menel, ti, and yetel. These are not true cases as the dative, vocative, and ablative relations are expressed by prepositional particles.
38
GRAMMAR
The different relationships such as instrument, location, etc. are expressed by adverbial prepositions. The phonetic connection be- tween these suffixes and the words they modify is weak. They are considered under prepositions (p. 107). The indirect object is sometimes expressed by the particle t:
tin wal-ah-t-etš, I told something to you. .
ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIONSHIP. This is expressed by means of the suffix -il: 1
u tunits-il qaq, the stone of the fire, or, the fire, its stone.
u s'on-il ke, the gun for deer.
u na-il winik, the house for the men.
u ha-il s'onot, the water of the cenote.
GENTILITIOUS RELATIONSHIP. This is shown by the suffix -il: Ho-il, a Meridano, a man from Merida (Ho).
Saki-il, Sak-il, a man from Valladolid (Saki).
HABITUALITY. Nouns denoting accustomed condition or state are made from other nouns by means of the suffix -tal. There is some reason to believe that this -tal is the same suffix as that seen in verbs of Class II and seen again in the inchoative verb:
kohan, a sick man, kohan-tal, a sickly man.
kalan, a drunken man, kalan-tal, a drunkard.
DIMINUTIVES. This idea in nouns and adjectives may be ex- pressed by reduplication:
kah, pueblo. ka-kah, small pueblo.
A more common form of diminutives with nouns is the use of the adjective tšan, little; 2
tšan peq, small dog.
THE PRONOUN 3
The pronominal forms are added directly to the root-stem. They do not lose their identity when thus added but they are often
1 Compare Seler (p. 78, 113) where he considers the attributive relation- ship with adjective forms and also with nouns.
San Buenaventura (fol. 28 ob.) mentions this use of -il as follows; "no propia de persona, sino que por razon de algun oficio se apropia la cosa."
2 Compare Palma y Palma, p. 161-162.
' A portion of the material contained in this section was published as "Some notes on the Maya Pronoun" in Boas Anniversary Volume, New York, 1906, p. 85-88.
39
THE PRONOUN
phonetically changed. The pronouns do not occur as individual words with one exception (p. 42).
FORMS OF THE PRONOUN. There are two forms of the pronoun, the real pronoun called "verbal" and used as a suffix and the pos- sessive pronoun called " nominal " and used as a prefix. These forms are as follows: 1
Singular
Verbal Pronoun
Nominal Pronoun
1st person,
-en
in-
2d person,
-etš
a-
3d person,
--- (1)
u-
Dual
1st person, inclusive,
-on
k-
exclusive,
-on
k- - on
Plural
1st person, inclusive,
-oneš
k- - eš
exclusive,
-oneš
k- - oneš
2d person,
-eš
a- - eš
3d person,
-ob
u- - ob
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES. The Maya pronoun presents some dis- tinctive features. Among these is the use of two different sets of pronouns for active or transitive verbs and neutral or intransitive
1 Beltran (§§ 32-47) gives the following pronouns:
1. Demonstrative
2. Demonstrative
3. Mixed
ten
toon
en
on
in
ka
tetš te- - eš
etš
eš
a
a- - oš
lai lo- - ob
lailo ob
u
u- - ob
4. Mixed with vowel stems
5. Reciprocal
W
ka
inba kaba
aw
aw- - eš
aba
aba- - eš
y
y- - ob
uba uba- - ob
It will be seen that these five narrow down to the two given here, the two Demonstratives being the verbal pronoun and the verbal pronoun compounded with t, the two Mixed being the nominal pronoun with consonant and vowel stems and the Reciprocal being the nominal compounded with ba. He makes a distinction (§ 61) in the nominal pronoun in the 3d person singular between that used in the present tense where he uses lai and in the preterit and future where he has the usual form, u;
lai kambesik u kambesah
bin u kambes
I see no reason for this change which he calls " mi nueva correccion."
40
GRAMMAR
forms. There is an irregularity of usage of the two sets of pronouns dependent, in many cases, upon tense. Another uncommon feature is the association of forms characterizing different types of verbs.
NUMBER. In both pronouns there is a singular, dual, and plural.1 In actual conversation the distinction between the dual and plural is very seldom made.
When the verbal pronoun is used as an object there is no form to express the 3d person singular. When this form is used as the subject of an intransitive verb in the past tenses an i is used to express the 3d person.
kim-en, 1 died.
kim-i, he died.
A demonstrative (leti or leeti) is sometimes used when special emphasis is laid upon the 3d person.2
PERSONS EXPRESSED. In the nominal pronoun all three persons are expressed. The inclusive and exclusive forms of the dual and plural of the verbal pronoun are not differentiated whereas in the nominal pronoun there are different forms marking the inclusion or the exclusion of the person addressed: - we, meaning you and I, or we, meaning he and I. As in the case with the dual and plural the distinction between the inclusive and exclusive forms is made very seldom in actual conversation.3
It will be noted that in the plural of the nominal pronoun both a prefix and a suffix are used and that the second and third persons plural have the same form prefixed as that of the singular with the
1 Beltran (§§ 225-227) notes the dual and plural forms in only two cases, and he does not fail to mention the difference between the forms of the verbal pronoun in -on and the -ones as seen in koon, come (dual) and koones, come (plural). There may also be a distinction between the dual and plural of the second person as shown by his forms koš (cox) for the dual and košeš (coxex) for the plural.
" The early Spanish grammars have lai for the demonstrative of the 3d per- son. Palma y Palma (p. 209, 210) has the form leti. He considers this the pronoun of the 3d person which contracts to i in some cases;
nak leti or nak-i he ascended.
Lopez (§ 49) has lai, lei or leti, laiob, letiob or leobti for the 3d person, singular and plural.
' The Huasteca has the inclusive and exclusive forms for the nominal pro- noun. These forms undoubtedly exist in many of the other dialects of the Maya stock.
41
THE PRONOUN
addition of the suffix, -es for the second person and -ob for the third person. The -es is also used alone in the second person plural of the verbal and is found in the first person plural compounded with -on, the regular verbal pronoun for the first person, dual and plural.
There is no way to make clear without the use of the demon- strative the distinction in the pronoun between a singular subject with a plural object and a plural subject with a singular object, as "he hit them" and "they hit him."
PRONOUN WITH VOWEL STEMS. When the root or stem begins with a vowel a semi-vowel is infixed between the nominal pronoun and the stem with the exception of the first person plural. This vowel is w in the first person singular and the second person singu- lar and plural and y in the third person singular and plural. These vowels, when they occur here, may have had a phonetic origin but a syntactic relation is shown at the present time by the fact that the w changes to y in the third person.1
1 Coronel and the other early grammarians give special forms for the pro- noun when used with vowel stems. These forms agree in the main with those found at the present time. It should be noted that the form for the first per- son plural does not differ from the same form used with consonant stems, thus agreeing with Beltran in saying that no semi-vowel is added in the first person plural. The distinction made by them between the first and second person singular by the use of the regular form of the pronoun for the second person and the semi-vowel alone in the first person is probably incorrect as I found the pronoun of the first person singular (in) always retained and used with the semi-vowel, w. These points are made clear by the following com- parison between the early forms and those used at the present time;
Coronel, etc.
A. M. T.
w-atan
in w-atan
a w-atan
a w-atan
y-atan u y-atan or y-atan
k-atan
k-atan
a w-atan-eš y-atan-ob
a w-atan-eš
u y-atan-ob or y-atan-ob
Zavala (p. 13) gives the two forms for the 1st person singular; w-atan and in w-atan, w-al, in w-al,
and two for the third person; y-atan and u-y-atan, y-al, u y-al.
Palma y Palma (p. 147 and p. 213-215) has the same forms as those given here, using the u, however, instead of the w. He finds fault and quite correctly,
42
GRAMMAR
VERBAL PRONOUN. This is found in the following places:
1. Subject of the intransitive verb in the past tense.
2. Object of intransitive verbs.
3. With verbs of Class IV.
It may stand alone only when compounded with t or te as t-en, t-etš, t-o(o)n. These forms are used as a demonstrative pronoun when emphasis is desired and especially in answer to questions; 1
The verbal pronoun may be compounded with ka which, as pointed out by Seler (p. 98, 99), serves as a conjunction, a rela- tive. This ka combines with the pronoun into k-en, k-etš, etc .:
ten ken in Nakuk Pech, I, who am here, I am Nakuk Pech.
with the forms of the pronoun given by the early grammarians as used with vowel stems.
Lopez (§ 172) agrees with the forms given here.
San Buenaventura uses the semi-vowel with vowel verbs even when the nominal pronoun follows the verbal stem;
wokol-in-kah.
Beltran (§ 45) finds fault with this with good reason.
1 Beltran (§ 160) uses the same form in answer to a question; ma es hantik wah la, who is eating the tortilla? ten hantik, 1 am eating it.
He also (§ 32) makes this form compounded with t his first pronoun which he calls Demonstrative. He uses it in his 2d, 3d, and 4th Conjugations as the subject of the verb in the present and imperfect tenses;
ten kambesik ten oikik ten kanantik
In the Maya as spoken at Valladolid at the present time the nominal pro- noun would be used compounded with its time particles for the present and past. As noted above, the forms of the verbal pronoun compounded with t have the meaning of a demonstrative;
ten kambe-s-ik, I am the one who is showing something.
The fact that Beltran uses the nominal pronoun in the preterit, pluperfect, and his two futures shows that he has no warrant for using the verbal pronoun in the present and imperfect.
San Buenaventura incorrectly uses the forms ten, tets, etc. as the forms of the verb " to be." Beltran (§ 32) does not agree with this.
Seler (p. 73) notes the use of the verbal pronoun with a " supporter " t or te. He (p. 79) points out the mistake of San Buenaventura in considering the te as a verb. He bases his objection on the fact that it does not, as a rule, have tense characters.
Lopez (§§ 48, 49) gives the personal pronoun in the nominative as ten, tetš, etc.
43
THE PRONOUN
NOMINAL PRONOUN. This is found in the following places:
1. Subject of all transitive verbs.
2. Subject of the present and future of intransitive verbs.
3. Possessive pronoun.
TIME PARTICLES. These time particles of the pronoun have not been recognized as such in any of the Maya grammars.1 It is not without ample verification of the data collected in Yucatan and among the Lacandones that I venture to suggest the presence of a full set of time particles for the nominal pronoun. These are prefixed to the forms of the pronoun and are sometimes so closely joined to the pronoun by phonetic changes that it is difficult to separate them from the form of the pronoun. In general, it can be said, that the uncontracted forms are most common among the Mayas as well as among the Lacandones. The uncontracted forms seem to have been earlier than those where contraction has re- sulted. Among the Mayas near Valladolid the contracted forms were used almost exclusively.
The time particles seen in the 1st person, dual and plural, usu- ally remain unchanged. The contractions of these particles with the pronoun are shown here.
Contraction of time particles. Present, tan, may contract with the pronoun as follows:
Consonant Stems Vowel Stems
tan-in into t-in tan-in w-atan into t-in w-atan, my wife.
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