Indian Village Site and Cemetery Near Madisonville, Ohio, Part 37

Author: Hooton, Earnest Albert, 1887-1954
Publication date: 1920
Publisher: Cambridge, Mass., The Museum
Number of Pages: 939

USA > Ohio > Hamilton County > Madisonville > Indian Village Site and Cemetery Near Madisonville, Ohio > Part 37

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GRAMMAR

CONSONANTS. The system of consonants includes one velar, two palatals, alveolars, a double set of dentals in both the surd and the fortis, and labials. It is often difficult to distinguish between the sonant b and its corresponding surd p. It is probable, however, that they are not interchangeable. The following table represents the system of consonants found in the Maya:

Sonant Surd Fortis Spirant Nasal

Lateral

Velar

Palatal

Alveolar

P' t'

H 8

Dental

tě'

Labial

In addition to these sounds, w, y, and h sounds occur. I have been much perplexed by what I have long thought to be an r sound, possibly a sonant of the spirant. No mention of this sound is made in any of the early grammars and its presence is denied by the Mayas themselves. This sound I seem to have heard in several words written by Maya scholars with a doubled vowel:

tin bor-t-ik, or, as usually written, tin boo-t-ik, lerti or leeti or leti.

I have come to.the conclusion to omit this sound from the list.1

There may also be fortis forms for the velar and the palatal surd (q and k). These are difficult to make out. No differentiation seems to be made between the surd and the fortis in the k sounds in the greater number of cases. I have been unable to note any difference in the grammatical structure of the language as a con- sequence of the failure to differentiate between the surd and the fortis in these two cases. The vocabulary ought naturally to make the distinction if it is present but I have not found it.

The velar k, written q, is formed between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. The palatal k is the common English k. The

aprender por Arte; por carecer, no solo de muchas letras, sino tambien de libros enteros, de los cuales fastidian a un Gramático. ¿ Quién creyera, que un idioma muy lato se habia de practicar con expedicion y sin tropiezo: sin tardanza, y con prefeccion sin el adminículo de ocho consonantes? Este es el Idioma ó Lengua Maya; y tan cierto, que carece de las siguientes: d, f, g, j, q, r, 8, U."

1 The r sound is well recognized in Cakchiquel and Quiche where it is used in place of the y in Maya. Palma y Palma (p. 145) uses the r in one case, at least, in modern Maya.

PHONETICS

palatal spirant (H) is an intensified h sound and is found only in one place as far as could be made out. The first dental surd, really a ts, is written with an inverted c (5). The second dental surd, tš, is pronounced like the first ch in church. The fortis forms, called by the early Spanish grammarians " las letras heridas," are found in the alveolar, t', the two dentals, 5' and ts' and the labial, p'. These are common and are characterized by a forcible expelling of the breath with glottal closure. The dental spirant, š, is pro- nounced like the sh in hush. The lateral (1) is thick and rather strongly sonant.1 Long combinations of consonant sounds do not occur.

VOWELS. The vowel system is very simple. The vowels all have their continental sounds. There is a long a (a) and a short a (ă), the first pronounced like a in father and the second like a in hat. There is also some indication of a long e (e) like a in fate, long i (1) like i in pique and long u (u) like u in rule in addition to the ordinary e, i, and u. I did not find a long o .? The only diphthong is ai, written by the early authorities as ay.

1 For the best discussion of the phonetics of the Maya as given in the older authorities, see Beltran, §§ 1-16. See also Lopez, §§ 1-11 and Gates, 1920, p. 611-613.

2 Perez (1866-1877) speaks of two forms of the vowel although he does not distinguish these forms in his dictionary. Under each of the vowels he de- scribes the two forms. Under "A," for example, he writes, "Esta vocal se pronuncia de dos maneras, una suave que puede ser larga ó breve, y otra fuerte en la que como que se contiene el aliento ó sonido repentinamente al mismo tiempo de emitirlo: como en na, casa y na, madre." A question might well be raised here whether he is not speaking of the doubled vowel in each case. It seems from his illustration of na, casa, and na, madre, that this is not the case. The a in the word for house is short and in that for mother it is long.

Berendt (1869) also gives two forms for each of the vowels but he expressly states that one is long and the other short.

Palma y Palma (p. 137) refers at length to the confusion caused by the different ways of pronouncing the same vowel. He writes (p. 139), " Aunque de esto hablaré después en lugar más apropiado, bueno es decir siquiera de paso, que las roces monosilábicas mayas, no tienen una cantidad prosódica fija. Unas son extremadamente breves en la emisión, y otras, sin contar con sus diversas inflexiones y acentos que son otros medios de distinción, son más o menos largas. Por eso no se representan bien siempre doblando las vocales, pues las hay tan largas, que necesitarían tres ó más."

In this discussion of long and short vowels, it is significant to observe that the Landa alphabet has three forms for a, two for o and two for u. See in this connection, Palma y Palma, p. 222-239.

GRAMMAR

Doubled Vowels. These are very common in Maya and great care is sometimes needed in distinguishing them as: 1

kan, snake. sill, to give, to offer.

kaan, sky.

ton, male sexual member.

be, road.

toon, we.

bee, exclamation of pain.

hun, one.

sil, to tuck up the sleeves. huun, paper, letter.

NOTATION. It is a matter of no little importance to decide how the various sounds should be written. The table (p. 21), gives the alphabets as used by the modern authors on Maya as well as the letters used by the older Spanish authorities either in their gram- mars or in their vocabularies. There is a considerable mass of written Maya and material is still being published in Yucatan in this language. The usual modern method follows more or less closely that used by the earlier writers, c for our k, a k for the velar surd (q), a barring or doubling of the letters for the " letras heridas " or fortis forms, ch, th, and pp. The fortis form of one of the den- tals is almost always written 5. The inconsistency from a pho- netic standpoint of this method is great but the fact that there is a large mass of material already written in this way should be given due consideration before any changes are suggested.

Furthermore, the ease of printing and the necessity for new type if diacritical marks are used are other considerations which

1 The later Spanish dictionaries often fail to distinguish the difference be- tween a single vowel and the same one doubled. Perez (1866-77), for example. gives qiq or qiiq for blood, kimil or kilmil, to die. The Motul and Ticul dic- tionaries, on the other hand, give but one form for each of these words. The early Spanish grammarians make no reference to these double vowels.

Berendt specifically mentions them. In speaking of false diphthongs he writes (1869, p. 4) " In languages of the Maya family they are often formed by a repetition of the same vowel and constitute a remarkable distinction; kan is snake and kaan is sky in Maya."

Pimentel (1862-1865, v. 2, p. 7; ed. 1874-1875, v. 3, p. 108) writes "No se observa cargazon de consonantes en yucateco, y sí la repeticion de una misma vocal en muchas palabras."

1 e and z were omitted, probably by mistake, from the list of sounds given by Zavala.

* Seler in his first paragraphs writes the sounds as indicated here and in his text he follows the accustomed usage.

' e and ch were omitted by mistake in the 1859 edition of the grammar. They occur in the 1746 edition.

PHONETICS

ALPHABETS USED BY VARIOUS AUTHORITIES

Toszer

Gates MS.

Palma, 1901

Zavala, 1896

Seler, 1887

Stoll, 1884

Brinton, 1882

de Ronny,

Berendt, 1869

Perez,

Brasseur, 1864

Pimentel,

1862-1865

San Francisco

Motul Dictio-

Beltran, 1746

San Buena-

ventura, 1084

Coronel, 1620

a, & a

a, a å, å l

a, a a

a, a

k |

05.

tš

ch ! ch

tš ?

ch 3

tš' ich'ch

chh

ch'| ch

ch'

è, e; e

[e] " e

e, e

B, e

i, 1

-X

p' p'

i PP

S' |s

u, u u

ū, ŭ

u, u

. .

4 : :

1 See footnotes 1, 2, and 3 on opposite page.

500

tz'

4 F

õ, č

1, 1

DOPB ---

ch'

ei[?]

Dictionary

nary

1875

1866-1877

Palma y

GRAMMAR

should be taken into account. If any changes whatsoever are to be made from the older methods it seems to me that these changes should be along well recognized phonetic lines and that they should be consistent.

In adopting what, in some cases, is a new method I have been largely governed by a desire to follow phonetic practices used by other writers on the languages of America, namely, to use a single character for a single sound and to express consistently all sounds made in the same way by a similar notation as, for example, the fortis by an apostrophe after the letter. For purposes of a gram- mar of the Maya dialect the following changes in notation are used in this paper:1

1. The palatal surd is always written k rather than c as the c in Maya is always hard.

2. The velar surd is written q, not k which is commonly used.

3. The dental spirant is s, not x or sh, as this is a single sound and should be written by a single letter.

4. One of the dental surds is written ts, not ch, as the sound is really made by a t before the dental spirant. tsh would be more correct than ch.

5. The second dental surd is written 5, not tz or ts.

6. The fortis of the alveolar t, the dentals > and ts, and the labial p are written with an apostrophe following the letter, t', 5', tš', and p' respectively rather than th, 5, ch, and pp.

7. The s, written c or z by the Spaniards is, of course, a well justified change.

8. W is added to the alphabet. This letter is not found in any of the former Maya writings from the fact, no doubt, that there

1 In proper names, especially the names of towns, and in the terms given to the divisions of Maya time as shown in the hieroglyphic writing no changes have been made.

I am well aware that these changes in notation will meet with adverse criti- cism. I do not cherish the hope that my method will be followed by other workers in this field. I have retained the same general system of notation as that used in my previous papers on the Maya language. I have felt that, for purposes of a grammar, it is well to make these changes as, with one exception, the method used here corresponds to that employed by most other writers on American languages. The one exception is the use of the inverted c (5) which is used by all the ancient Maya authorities. It is employed here, however, for the dental surd and o' for the corresponding fortis form.

PHONETICS

is no w in Spanish. The consonant w is clearly different from u, a vowel, and should be distinguished from it.

It should be noted that in quoting the Maya of any of the earlier authorities I have used, for the purpose of uniformity, the method of representing the sounds as here given rather than that used by the writers themselves.

PHONETIC CHANGES. These do not play an important part in word composition. When the sign expressing past time, t, is used with the nominal pronoun of the 1st person plural, k, in both the inclusive and exclusive forms, the k is lost and the t becomes a fortis:

t-k-putš-ah becomes ť'-putš-ah. .

In much the same way, when two k sounds come together they usually combine into the velar:

J'ok-k putš-ah becomes s'oq putš-ah.1

Syncope, Synalephe, and Apocope .? Contraction by syncope, syn- alephe, and apocope occur very frequently. As in English, so in Maya, both the contracted and uncontracted forms are in good use. When a native is dictating texts, he is much more inclined to use the uncontracted forms; whereas, in everyday speech, he usually employs the contracted forms.

Syncope is noted in the following places:

1. The transitive verb with a pronominal object may lose the

1 This root is more commonly written puts', to pound, to bruise, to grind something: despachurrar, machucar, moler, etc. Puts'tuntik, despachurrar con piedra, matar apedreando con las grandes.

? Beltran (§§ 129-147) gives ten rules for these changes. He writes, " Porque en este idioma no se habla en todo como se escribe, ni se pronuncian muchas voces conforme lo piden las reglas (y es lo que causa, que algunos que lo hablan parezcan forasteros ó se juzgue que no pronuncian como deben; siendo así, que hablan segun las reglas del arte) se advierta que es tan necesario el uso de las sinalefas y sinco- pas, que sin hipérbole se puede afirmar, que todo el ser y hermosura de esta lengua es el uso de ellas y la parte mas principal del arte es su explicacion." And again (§ 135), "La sincopa no es otra cosa, que comerle a algun vocablo alguna sílaba, ó letra rocal ó consonante. Y esta figura agracia tanto al idioma Maya que sin ella parece que sus rocablos se hacen extraños, poco agradables y en su cadencia feos. En tanta manera, que puedo sin temeridad decir que casi la mitad de sus vocablos se sincopan ó son sincopables."

GRAMMAR

i of the ending -ik in the present and the a of the ending -ah in the past:

tan-in putš-ik-etš becomes tin putš-k-etš 1

t-in kambe-s-ah-etš becomes tin kambe-s-h-etš.

2. The same vowels (i and a) of the temporal endings of the transitive verb are lost when the reflexive form of the pronoun is used:

tin han-t-ik-im-ba becomes tin han-t-k-im-ba tin han-t-ah-im-ba becomes tin han-t-h-im-ba

3. All polysyllabic transitive verbs lose the vowel of the tem- poral endings before the -es of the 2d person plural and -ob of the 3d person plural : 2

tun yakun-t-ik-eš becomes tun yakun-t-k-eš. tun yakun-t-ik-ob becomes tun yakun-t-k-ob.

4. Verbs using the suffixes -al, -el, -il, -ol, -ul lose the vowel of the suffix in the present and the future of the intransitive:

nak-al-in-kah becomes nak-1-in-kah. he-in han-al-e becomes hen han-l-e.

The verbs in -tal, following a final consonant in the stem, do not follow this rule.

5. In the future of the intransitive with bin and the suffix -ak, the a of the suffix is lost : 3

bin han-ak-en becomes bin han-k-en.

When the stem ends in k the whole suffix is lost: bin nak-ak-en becomes bin nak-en.

6. In words of two syllables containing two similar vowels, the second vowel is lost when:

1 Beltran (§ 140) gives an example of syncope; ten kambe-s-ik-etš becoming ten kambe-s-etš.

This seems to me to be incorrect as the contracted form has lost the k, the sign of the present. His second example;

teeš kambe-s-ik-on becoming teeš kambe-s-k-on,

correct as it retains the k.

: Compare Lopez, § 166.

' Lopez (§ 165) gives the following: bin taketš for bin talaketš.

PHONETICS

(a) the plural sign is used: taman-ob becomes tamn-ob.

(b) the verbal pronoun is used: winik-en becomes wink-en.

7. When a vowel suffix is added to a stem ending in 1, the vowel of the stem is sometimes lost :

tel-o becomes tl-o.

Synalephe is much less common than syncope. It is noted in the following places:

1. Time particles of the present, past, and future attached to the nominal pronoun:

Present, tan-in becomes tin. tan-a becomes tan, etc.

Past, ti-in becomes tin. ti-a becomes ta, etc. J'ok-in becomes s'in.

J'ok-a becomes s'a, etc.

Future, he-in becomes hen. he-a becomes ha, etc.

2. The negative ma and the nominal pronoun: ma-in becomes min.

3. Ti and some other prepositions and the nominal pronoun: 1 ti-in watotš becomes tin watotš.

Apocope. This is not uncommon in everyday speech. Among the places where it may be found, the following are to be noted:

1. The final -e, the sign of the future of the transitive with bin, is sometimes lost when followed by a noun:

bin in han-t-e wa becomes bin in han-t wa.

2. The final -e of the future is usually lost when the form in bin takes a pronominal object:

bin in yakun-t-e-etš becomes bin in yakun-t-etš.

1 Beltran (§§ 132, 133) makes a distinction in the contraction of ti meaning " in " and ti meaning " to or for." Compare also Lopez, § 164.

GRAMMAR

3. The final -e, the sign of the imperative with transitive verbs, is lost when followed by a pronoun or a particle beginning with a vowel:

bik-e a-yum becomes oik a-yum.

4. The final -1 of the suffix -il is lost when an adverb or negative *is used :

ma sak-en-i for ma sak-en-il.

Vocalic harmony. This is observed in many different sets of suffixes especially those in -1, the vowel of the suffix agreeing with that of the stem:

han-al, wen-el, tip'-il, top-ol, qutš-ul.

There seems, however, to be a strong tendency to prefer the suffix -al even when the vowel of the stem is not a.

Avoidance of hiatus. In certain suffixes beginning with a vowel, when the stem ends in a vowel, the hiatus is sometimes avoided by adding a b sound. This is seen in some cases in the plural suffix -ob in which case there may be a certain harmony between the consonant of the suffix and the consonant added.

An h sound is also sometimes added in order to avoid an hiatus between two vowel sounds:

meya-h-en, I am a workman.

This should not be confused with the hi, the sign of the past: meya-hi-en, I was a workman.

Semi-vowels. These are added both to nominal and verbal stems beginning with a vowel. Whatever the previous history of these sounds may have been they now show a syntactic relation as we find the change of w and y made, not according to the initial vowel, but rather in relation to the person of the verb or of the nominal pronoun.

Root, al, to see.

tin w-al-ik, I see it (contraction of tan-in w-al-ik).

tan w-al-ik, you see it (contraction of tan a-w-al-ik).

tun y-al-ik, he sees it (contracted to t-i-al-ik).

tank al-ik, we see it.

tan wal-ik-eš, you see it.

tun y-al-ik-ob, they see it (contracted to t-i-al-ik-ob).

PHONETICS

It will be noted that w is added in the first person singular and the second person singular and plural and y in the third person sin- gular and plural. No vowel is added in the first person plural.

Lacandone Dialect. Certain simple phonetic changes and a less extended use of contraction alone distinguish the dialect spoken by the Lacandones from that used by the Mayas of Yucatan. Final 1 in stems appears as n in the Lacandone, wen-el changing to wen-en. Certain stems with final n in the Maya change to m in the dialect of the Lacandone. The great distinguishing mark, however, between the Maya as spoken around Valladolid, Yucatan, and that spoken in Chiapas is the frequent use of contraction among the people in the former territory. Forms which one is unable to analyze among the Mayas appear separated into their component parts in the dialect spoken by the Lacandones. This is especially to be noted in the time particles used with the nominal pronoun. I shall limit myself hereafter entirely to the language used in Yucatan, leaving it to be understood that that spoken by the Lacandones is essentially the same with the exceptions which have just been noted.

CHARACTER OF STEM. Stems are almost entirely monosyllabic and consist normally of consonant, vowel, consonant. Several are made up only of vowel and consonant, and a smaller number of consonant and vowel.

ACCENT. This is not marked. It is in part dependent upon the length of the vowel. Contracted syllables usually seem to have greater stress of voice laid upon them. In spite of some authorities to the contrary, there seem to be few cases where a difference in accent occasions a difference in the meaning of the form.1

The accent in all the Lacandone chants is much more noticeable than in the ordinary speech. There is often a definite rhythm and in the slow chants this is very marked .? Syllables composed of the

1 1 was unable to find the distinction in accent made by Beltran (§ 98) be- tween the infinitive of certain verbs in -1 and the past participle;

lub-ul, to tall and lub-ul, a thing fallen.

lik-il, to raise and lik-il, a thing raised.

? Tozzer, 1907, p. 131 and Chant no. 17.

GRAMMAR

vowel i or ki are often added at the end of words to fill out a cer- tain measure. These added sounds seem to affect the meaning in no way.1 The rhythm is very irregular and it is impossible to as- certain the general scheme of long and short syllables.

GRAMMATICAL PROCESSES

ENUMERATION.

1. Word composition.

2. Affixes.

(a) Prefix.

(b) Suffix.

3. Reduplication.

4. Word order.

WORD COMPOSITION. An idea is expressed in Maya either by a single stem, usually monosyllabic, to which one or more particles are affixed, or by the juxtaposition of two stems modified and re- stricted by one or more prefixes, suffixes, or both. In the latter case each stem remains phonetically a unit and each is separated from the other by an hiatus. Grammatically, however, there is a unity existing between the two. The most important case of word composition is that of the transitive verb with its object. So strong is this unity that the action of the verb as related to its specific object is taken as a whole and is considered as intransitive in sense and thus follows the intransitive in form. It is possible to join all transitive verbs with their objects in this way but only those expressing some common and natural act in relation to the object are usually found in the intransitive form as owe-money, chop-wood, etc.

AFFIXES. These are very common in Maya and are used to ex- press practically all the grammatical ideas. Phonetically there is much closer unity between the root and its affixes than between two juxtaposed roots. In the former case certain phonetic changes

1 Compare in this connection Palma y Palma (p. 144) who writes, "No obstante, las partículas compositivas que no modifican el sentido, son muchísimas, las cuales, efictivamente, sólo contribuyen á la variedad de las formas de la ex- presión constituyendo así, como el indicado padre Beltran dice, 'partículas ador- nativas' que facilitan giros de estilo de que resulta un lenguaje elegante y artístico cuando se habla bien el idioma."

GRAMMATICAL PROCESSES

tend to strengthen this unity. An intimate relation is also brought about in some cases between the suffix and the stem by vocalic harmony. It is often difficult to draw a line between true word composition and prefixing and suffixing. I have placed under Composition all forms made up of words which can stand alone and thus can be considered as true words in contrast to the affixes which cannot appear alone. There are, no doubt, many of the latter which were once words. Tan, for example, which is given here as a particle is shown by Perez to be an impersonal verb.

REDUPLICATION. This is not especially common in Maya and is found only in a limited number of cases.

WORD ORDER. This does not play a great part in expressing syntactical relations.

IDEAS EXPRESSED BY THE GRAMMATICAL PROCESSES

WORD COMPOSITION. This is employed in the following forms:

1. Habitual action. When a verb and its object expresses this idea the two form a unit and the form becomes intransitive in the past tense:

šo[t]-tše-n-ah-en, I cut wood.

This is composed of the root, sot, to cut, and tše, wood. The idea of cutting wood is regarded as a verb in itself.

2. Agent. This is sometimes expressed by word composition in addition to the usual sign for the agent, t.

tin tak-ok-t-ik, I am bending something with my foot (ok).

3. Gender. In names of animals and, in a few cases, in other nouns:

šibal ke, male deer. tš'upul ke, female deer.

4. Indefinite time in the future. This is expressed by the root of the verb binel, " to go," in both the intransitive and transitive verb:

bin nak-ak-en, 1 am going to climb.

bin a hant wa-e, you are going to eat the tortilla.1

1 This also shows a form of word composition as the object is inserted be- tween the root of the verb and the sign of the future, -e.

GRAMMAR

5. Action just completed. This is shown by the root s'ok, to finish :

J'a puts-h-en (s'ok-a puts-ah-en), you have just finished hitting me.

6. Optative. This is made by the root of the verb qat, to desire. in qat bin (el), I desire to go, I may go.

THE SUFFIX. This is found to express the following relations and ideas:

1. Plurality. In most nouns, the 3d person of the nominal pro- noun, and in some adjectives, by -ob:

na, house, na-ob, houses. u-na, his house, u-na-ob, their house or his houses.

2. Plurality. In the 2d person of the nominal pronoun by -es: a-na, your house, a-na-es, your (more than one) house.

3. Plurality in some adjectives. By -ak: kan-šk tšupal-al, tall girls.

4. Plurality in some nouns. By -al.

tšupal, a girl. tšupal-al, girls.

5. Exclusion of the person spoken to. In nominal pronoun by -on for dual and -on-eš for plural:

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Indian Village Site and Cemetery Near Madisonville, Ohio, Part 37

Author: Hooton, Earnest Albert, 1887-1954 Publication date: 1920 Publisher: Cambridge, Mass., The Museum Number of Pages: 939

Author: Hooton, Earnest Albert, 1887-1954
Publication date: 1920
Publisher: Cambridge, Mass., The Museum
Number of Pages: 939