Historical hand-atlas, illustrated : containing twelve farm maps, and History of Jay County, Indiana, Part 11

Author: H.H. Hardesty (Firm)
Publication date: 1881
Publisher: Chicago : H.H. Hardesty
Number of Pages: 288

USA > Indiana > Jay County > Historical hand-atlas, illustrated : containing twelve farm maps, and History of Jay County, Indiana > Part 11

Note: The text from this book was generated using artificial intelligence so there may be some errors. The full pages can be found on Archive.org (link on the Part 1 page).

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Fort Leaton

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Hot Springs

Fort Arbuckle +

Fort Washita

San Miguel

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St. Xavier de Dao

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Cape Hatteras

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HILLS.

Flatkend

Fort Stimul +

GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORLD.

the action of the water, which have been carried vast distances from their origin. It is known as the Bowlder Formation, or Northern Drift. In Russia there are enormous blocks that have been transported 800 and in some instances 1,000 miles in a south- eastern direction from their origin in the Scandinavian range.

Minerals are deposited in veins or fissures of rocks, in masscs, in heds, aud sometimes rolled fragments imbedded in gravel and sand, the detritus of water. Most of the metals are found in veins; a few, as gold and tin, iron and copper ores, are dissemi- nated through the rocks, though infrequently. The metals are diffused over the earth in great abundance. Few countries of any extent do not contain some of them.

The Waters of the Earth .- The vapor which rises invisihly from the land and water ascends in the atmosphere until it is condensed hy the cold into clouds, which restore it again to the earth in the form of rain, hail, and snow. Part of this moisture restored to the earth is reabsorhed by the air, part supplies the wauts of animal and vegetable life, a portion is carried off by the streams, and the remaining part penetratcs through porous soils until it reaches a stratum impervious to water, where it accumu- lates in subterranean lakes, often of great extent. The mountains receive the most of the aërial moisture, and from the many alter- nations of permeable and impermeable strata they contain, a complete system of reservoirs is formed in them, which, con- tinually overflowing, form perennial Springs, at different eleva- tions, which unite and run down their sides in incipient rivers. A great portion of the water at these high levels penetrates the earth until it reaches an impermeable stratum helow the plains, where it collects in a sheet, and is forced hy hydraulic pressure to rise in springs, through cracks in the ground, to the surface. In this way the water which falls on hills and mountains is carried through highly inclined strata to great depths, and even helow the hed of the ocean, in many parts of which there are springs of fresh water. In horing artesian wells the water often rushes up with such force, by the great pressure of the water underneath, as to form jets forty or fifty feet high.

Few springs give the same quantity of water at all times. They vary much in the quantity of foreign matter they contain. Springs which exist in mountains are generally pure. The car- bonic acid gas generally found in them escapes into the atmosphere, and their eartby matter is deposited as they run along. The water of rivers from such sources is soft, while wells and springs in the plains are hard, and more or less mineral.

Rivers often rise in lakes which they connect with the sea. Sometimes they spring from small elevations in tho plains, from perennial sources in the mountains, alpine lakes, and melted snow and glaciers. All rivers ultimately empty into the ocean. The Atlantic, the Arctic, and the Pacific Oceans are directly or indi- rectly tho recipients of all the rivers; consequently their hasins are bounded hy the principal water-sheds of the continents. The hasin of a sea or ocean comprehends all the land drained hy the rivers which fall into it, and is hounded hy an imaginary line passing through all their sources.

The volume of a river varics. In the temperate zones rivers are subject to floods from autumnal rains and the melting of the snow, especially on mountain ranges. The inundations of the rivers in the torrid zone occur with a regularity peculiar to a region in which metcoric phenomena are uniform in all their changes. These floods are owing to the periodical rains which, in tropical climes, follow the cessation of the tradewinds, after the vernal equinox, and at thic turn of the monsoons. They are thus dependent on the declination of the sun, the immediate cause of

after flowing underground for some distance reappear at the sur- face. The alluvial soil carried down by streams is gradually deposited as their velocity diminishes; and if they are subject to inundations and the coast is flat, it forms deltas at their mouths. Tides flow up some rivers to a great distance. The tide is percep- tihle in the Amazon five bundred and seventy-six miles from its mouth, and it ascends two hundred and fifty-five miles in the Orinoco.

The bollows formed on the surface of the earth by the ground sinking and rising, earthquakes, streams of lava, craters of extinct volcanoes, the intersection of strata, and those that occur along the edges of the different formations, are generally filled with water, and constitute systems of Lakes, some salt and some fresh. Almost all lakes are fed hy springs rising at the bottom, and they are occasionally the sources of the largest rivers. Some have neither tributaries nor outlets; the greatest number have hoth. The quantity of water in lakes, like that in rivers, varies with the seasons everywhere. Small lakes occur in mountain passes, formed by water which runs into them from surrounding peaks. They are frequently, as in the Alps, very transparent, of a hright green or azure hue. Large lakes are common on table-lands, hut the

largest are on extensive plains. There are more lakes in bigh than in low latitudes, because evaporation is much greater in low latitudes. Fresh-water lakes are characteristic of the higher latitudes of hoth continents; but those on the old continent sink into insignificance in comparison with the number and extent of those on the new. The American lakes contain more than half the amount of fresh water on the globe. Lakcs being the sources of some of the largest rivers, are of great importauce for inland navigation as well as for irrigation; while, hy their constant evaporation, they maintain the supply of moisture in the atmo- sphere so essential to vegetation.

The Tides flow and ebh twice a day, and are raised by the combined action of the sun and moon. The water immediately under the moon is drawn from the earth hy that luminary at the same time that she draws the earth from the water diametrically opposite, in both cases producing a tide of nearly equal height. A similar action of the sun raises a wave which, on account of its great distance, is much less than that raised by the moon. The two waves sometimes unite, and sometimes are opposed to one another, according to the relative positions of the sun and moon ; hut the combined wave tends to follow the sun and moon as far as the rotation of the earth will allow. Being thus chiefly regulated by the moon, the tides occur twice in twenty-four hours. In that time the rotation of the earth brings the same point of the ocean twice under the meridian of the moon. The highest, or spring tides, happen at full moon -twice in each lunar year.

Ocean Currents .- Besides the tides there are other great movements going on continuously in tho ocean, which are called "ocean currents," and which play an incalculably importaut part in the natural economy of the earth. The two principal oceanio currents in the northern hemisphere, and those most familiar to the reader, doubtless, are the "Gulf Stream " aud the "Japan Current;" aud it has been clearly demonstrated, hy the experi- ments and observations of Dr. Carpenter, that, in common with the other great ocean currents, they arise from the simple fact that, like all other substances, water is expanded hy heat. In the great caldron of the torrid zone, the water is heated even as bigh as 85deg. F. It consequently expands and flows off to the cooler regions, its place heing supplied by colder and heavier water from the north. This, together with the great amount of equatorial precipitation, is believed to produce the ocean currents of our hemisphere, which are crowded against the eastern shores of hotb continents hy the motion of the earth until they reach latitude 48deg. to 56deg., where, by their motion being in excess of that of the earth, and hy encountering more elevated plateaus of the ocean heds, they are deflected eastward, and break upon the opposite coasts of the respective continents. This movement of the Gulf Stream is well understood. Leaving the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, it moves northeastward along the American coast, gradually hecoming an off-shore current until it impinges upon the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, where it is deflected to the eastward, and, moving along the southern declivity of tbe plateau upon which the ocean cable from Virgin Bay to Valencia rests, crosses the Atlantic and breaks upon the shores of Western Europe. A portion of its volume, escaping over the plateau, moves along the northern coast of Ireland and western coast of Scotland. Here we bave a magnificent river of warm water carrying the heat of the tropics to more frigid regions. This heat is retained intact to a great degree until the current breaks upon the shores, where it is set free, and, being carried inland hy the prevailing westerly wind, renders all of Central and Northern

all these changes. Streams sometimes suddenly disappear, and . Europe hahitahle. Were the Gulf Stream arrested in its flow,

the German would hecome a frozen ocean, the British Islands would become another Labrador-would cease to grow wheat and harley, and the people would he obliged to emigrate or perisb in a frozen wilderness.

While the Atlantic has its Gulf Stream, the Pacific bas one as much grander as the ocean through which it flows. This is called the " Japan Current." It takes its rise in the Indian Ocean, moves northward along the eastern shore of Asia, as the Atlantic Gulf Stream hugs the American shore, until it strikes upon the Aleutian Islands and Alaskan Peninsula. Here it is divided, One portion moves northward through Behring Sea and Straits, eastward through the Arctic Ocean, south ward through Baffin's Bay and Davis's Straits, and still southward along our Atlantio coast, giving us cold nortberly and easterly winds and good fish. This accounts for the abundance of icebergs in the Atlantic, while none are ever seen in the Pacific. The Japan Current, flowing from the Pacific into the Arctic Ocean and thence into tbe Atlantic, carries all icebergs with it. The other and much larger portion of the Japan Current is hent southward by the elevated bed of Behring Sea and the Alaskan Peninsula, and flows along the western coast of America as an off-shore current until it

GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORLD.

strikes upon Cape Mendocino, in California, where a portion turns again north ward as an immense in-shore eddy, while the remainder moves on southward uutil, by its greater specific gravity, it sinks beneath the surfaco and is lost.

In addition to these two great equatorial currents there are several others, which may be classified as the Arctic, the Ant- arctic, and the Indian Equatorial. The direction of both polar streams, owing to the rapid revolution of our planet, is obliquo and toward the equator. The Antarctic Current, encountering for many degrees little interruption from land, thus deflects gradually more and more to the eastward to ahout the 40th parallel, where it unites with the warm currents of the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans flowing directly east. In the Southern Pacific it strikes the southwest shores of South America, and there divides into two arms, the one following the coast north- wards under the well-known namo of Humboldt's Current ; the other, preserving more its easterly direction, doubles Cape Horn, and crossing the Atlantic forms on the southwest coast of Africa a northward flowing current similar to the Humboldt. Following the same laws, hut confined hy the formation of the land into narrower channels, the Arctic Ocean sends southward the immense volume of cold water known as the Greenland and Labrador currents, circling the coasts of these countries and bearing a freight of ieehergs as far south as the 40th parallel, whence it flows under the Gulf Stream, and along the coast of the United States; also the Behring Current, of much smaller dimensions, through the straits of the same name. The Indian Equatorial Current, under the names of the Malabar and Mozambique Currents, flows west and sonth across the Indian Ocean and through Mozambique Channels, forms the Cape Current, then bending suddenly eastward, it retro- grades in the 40th parallel, forms the South Australian Current, and finally unites with the East Australian.

Distribution of Animals and Plants .- According to Agassiz there are no less than four great " divisions " and twelvo "classes " of animals; but we use tho word here in the popular and restricted sense in which it covers simply the order of "mammalia." The Mammalia consists of nine orders of animals, viz : the quadrumana, animals which ean use their fore and hind feet as bands, such as monkeys and apes ; cheiroptera, those that have winged arms, such as bats ; carnivora, those that live on animal food, such as the lion, tiger, etc. ; rodentia, or gnawers, as beavers, squirrels, and mice ; edentata, or toothless animals, as sloths, ant-eaters, and armadilloes ; pachydermata, thick-skinned animals, as the elephant, horse, hippo- potamus, and hog; ruminantia, those that chew the cud, as camels, llamas, giraffes, cows, sheep, and deer ; marsupials, those having a pouch into which their young is received after birth ; and cetacec, those that inhabit the water, as dolphins, cachalots, whales, etc. The number of known species of the whole animal kingdom amounts at the present time to about 13,000. The animal kingdom varies with the height above the sea, and the latitude. The num- ber of land animals increases from the frigid zones to the equator. Viewing the mammalia from a comprehensive stand-point, it may be said that the forests of the tropics are the principal home of the monkey trihe; Asia is the ahode of the ape, especially the islands of the Indian Archipelago. They are dispersed in all parts of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Gibraltar, where the Barbary ape is found. Another species of ape is found in the island of Niphon, which is the northern limit of monkeys, at the eastern extremity of the old world. Bats that live on fruit are found in the tropical and warm climates. The common bat is met with everywhere, except in Arctic America. The vampire is found only in tropical America. Carnivorous animals are distributed throughout the earth, but in unequal proportions. As we near the tropics they increase so rapidly that there are almost three times as many 'in the tropical zones as in the temperate. The edentata are more numerous in South America than anywhere else in the old world; but in America their range is more extensive. The pachydermata are very numerous iu the old world, and were introduced into America by man. Tbe tapir is the only species of this order that is indigenous to North America, and it is found also in South America, The ruminantia are found everywhere in the tropical and temperate zones in the world, and three species are met with beyond the Arctic circle. The marsupials are almost exclusively found in Australia and New Guinea, though a few species exist in America.

In Europo there are 180 wild quadrupeds ; the most remarkable are the reindeer, elk, red and fallow deor, the roebuck, glutton, lynx, polecat, wild-cats, the common and black squirrels, the fox, wild hoar, wolf, the black and brown bear, and several species of weazels and rodents. The otter, and rabbits and hares are numer- ous. Tho hedge-hog is very generally distributed ; the porcupine is found exclusively in southern Europe; the chamois and the ibex are found in the Alps and Pyrenees.

Asia has 288 species of mammalia, of which 186 are common

to it and other countries, Asia minor is a region of transition from the fauna of Europe to that of Asia. The chamois, the ihex, the brown bear, the wolf, fox, hare, and others here mingle with tho hyena, the Angora goat, the Argali sheep, and the white squirrel. The hyena, panther, jackal, and wolf are inhabitants of Arabia. The reindeer, elk, wolf, hear, lynx, several kinds of martens, and cats, the fox, ermine, polecat, and weasel are all Asiatic fur-hearing animals. Among the distinctively Asiatic animals are the tiger, panther, tapir, ox, buffalo, elephant, goat, yak, camel, dromedary, antelope, musk deer, horse, ass, rhinoceros, leopard, ant-eater, flying squirrels, hats, and many species of the ape and monkey tribe.

Africa has 250 species of mammals exclusively its own. The giraffe, antelope, zebra, quagga, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephant and hog are the important. . Different species of the monkey trihe are found all over Africa, and lions, leopards, and panthers are numerous.

America is a rich zoological region, possessing 480 species of mammalia peculiarly its own. Mammals of the Arctie regions furnish excellent fur. The fox, polar hare, brown and white hear, and the reindeer inhahit these regions. The raccoon, black hear, hadger, the ermine, the red fox, prairie dog, lynx, heaver, muskrat, and moose-deer are among the animals of Amorica, The musk-ox and the bison are peculiar to North America, and aro found nowhere else.

Forty species of the indigonous quadrupeds of Australia are found nowhere elso, and the greater number are marsupials, which are distinguished from all other animals hy their young being nourished in the pouch until they are old enough to take care of themselves. The kangaroo, phalanger, flying opossumn, wombat, and the wild hog are all found in Australia. Runiinating and pachydermatous animals are not indigenous to Australia, and any that may be found iu that country have been introduced from other countries.

Plants are naturally distributed into two great sub-kingdoms, viz. : flowering plants and flowerless plants. The flowers of the former order of plants contain stamens and pistils, and are all formed of whorls of modified leaves. Their young seeds, termed ovules, are fertilized by the pollen of the stamens. The latter order of plants includes ferns, mosses, lichens, sea-weeds, and fungi, whose very minute seeds are of a very different nature, and bave no flowers, strictly speaking. The flowering plants are divided into two principal classes, termed monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The former grow from within the stalk, the foot- stalks of the old leaves always forming the outside of the stem. Their leaves have parallel veins, and the parts of their floral whorls are always in threes or sixes, and their emhryo has but one seed-lobo or cotyledon. Grasses, palms, and lilies helong to this class. The dicotyledons have leaves with netted veins, stems with distinct hark, and layers of wood and pith. The parts of their floral whorls are in fours or fives, and the embryo has two seed-lobes. Most trees and woody plants belong to this class. It is the larger ot, the two. Tho classes are variously distributed in unequal proportions, in different zones. Equinoctial America has a more extensive vegetation than any other portion of the earth of equal area. Europe has not more than half the number of indigenous species of plants. Asia, with its islands, has far more than Europe. Anstralia, with its islands, has almost as many as Europe. Africa has fewer known vegetable productions than any portion of the earth of equal area.

Vegetation depends mainly on the light of the sun, moisture, and the mean annual temperature. It is also in some degree con- trolled by the heat of the summer in the temperate zones, and by exposure, plants requiring warmth being found at a lower level on the north side of a mountain than on the south side. Between the tropics, where there is, an ahsence of rain, the soil is parched and unproductive. In those regions where moisture is combined with heat and light, vegetation flourishes luxuriantly. Tbe forests and jungles of tropical climes are almost impenetrable from the exuberance of vegetation, the result of severe and heavy periodical falls of rain. As we recede from the tropics this rank- ness of vegetation gradually diminishes. It dimiuishes progres- sively as the altitude above the sea-level increases; thus each height has a corresponding parallel of latitude where tho flora are analogous. Plants are dispersed by currents. Winds also carry seeds to great distances. Birds and quadrupeds, and espe- cially man, are active agents also in the dispersion of plants.

Raees of Mankind .- According to the accepted classification among ethnologists, there are five primary races of inankind, from which all the various peoples of the world are sprung; namely, the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Malay, tho Ethiopian or Negro raee, and the American. The Caucasian race emhraces, (1) the Indo-European, which occupies south-western Asia (its birth-place), the greater part of Europe, the United States of

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Historical hand-atlas, illustrated : containing twelve farm maps, and History of Jay County, Indiana, Part 11

Author: H.H. Hardesty (Firm) Publication date: 1881 Publisher: Chicago : H.H. Hardesty Number of Pages: 288

Author: H.H. Hardesty (Firm)
Publication date: 1881
Publisher: Chicago : H.H. Hardesty
Number of Pages: 288